Sudirman
Sudirman | |
---|---|
1st Commander of the War Forces of the United States of Indonesia | |
In office 12 November 1945 – 29 January 1950 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by |
|
Succeeded by | Maj. General Tahi Bonar Simatupang |
Personal details | |
Born | [a] Purbalingga, Midden-Java, Dutch East Indies | 24 January 1916
Died | 29 January 1950 Magelang, Indonesia | (aged 34)
Resting place | Semaki Heroes' Cemetery 07°48′10″S 110°23′02″E / 7.80278°S 110.38389°E |
Spouse |
Siti Alfiah (m. 1936) |
Signature | Banyumas |
Battles/wars | |
Awards | National Hero of Indonesia (posthumous, 1964) |
Sudirman (Old Spelling: Soedirman; 24 January 1916[a] – 29 January 1950) was a high-ranking Indonesian military officer during the Indonesian National Revolution. The first commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, he continues to be widely respected in the country.
Born in
During the following three years Sudirman saw negotiations with the returning Dutch colonial forces fail, first after the
Sudirman's death was mourned throughout Indonesia, with flags flown at
Early life
Sudirman was born to Karsid Kartawiraji (father) and Siyem while they lived with Siyem's sister Tarsem, one of three women married to the sub-district head
Sudirman was raised with stories of heroic deeds and taught the etiquette and ways of the
In his fifth year of school, Sudirman asked to leave his studies, concerned with the ridicule he faced at the government-run school;
Muhammadiyah
While at Wirotomo, Sudirman was a member of the Wirotomo Student Union, drama club, and band.[19] He helped establish a branch of the Hizboel Wathan, an organisation similar to the Boy Scouts, which was run by the Islamic establishment Muhammadiyah. Sudirman became the leader of the Cilacap division after graduating from Wirotomo;[20][21] he was tasked with deciding and planning his groups' activities. He emphasised the need for religious studies, insisting that the contingents from Cilacap attend Muhammadiyah conferences throughout Java.[22] He taught the younger members[f] about the history of Islam and the importance of morality, while with older members he enforced near-military discipline.[23]
Teaching
After graduating from Wirotomo, Sudirman spent a year at a Muhammadiyah-run teacher's college in Surakarta, but later dropped out owing to a lack of funds.[24] In 1936 he returned to Cilacap to teach at a Muhammadiyah-run elementary school, having been trained by his teachers at Wirotomo; that year he married Alfiah, a former schoolmate and the daughter of the rich batik merchant Raden Sastroatmojo.[25][26] After the marriage Sudirman lived at his father-in-law's house in Cilacap so he could save money for his own home.[25] The couple went on to have three sons, Ahmad Tidarwono, Muhammad Teguh Bambang Tjahjadi, and Taufik Effendi, and four daughters, Didi Praptiastuti, Didi Sutjiati, Didi Pudjiati, and Titi Wahjuti Satyaningrum.[26][27]
As a teacher, Sudirman taught his students lessons on morality using examples from the lives of the
During this time Sudirman also continued to serve as a member of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group. Within the group he was known as a keen negotiator and mediator, working to resolve issues between members; he also preached at the local mosque.[32] He was elected as Chair of the Banyumas District of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group at the end of 1937. In this role he enacted policies facilitating members' studies and activities, both religious and secular. He was later put in charge of Youth Group activities throughout Central Java[25][33] and spent much of his free time travelling and preaching Islam, putting an emphasis on self-awareness.[34] Alfiah was also active in Muhammadiyah-sponsored activities through the group's branch for women, Nasyiatul Aisyiyah.[35]
Japanese occupation
When World War II broke out in Europe, it was expected that the Japanese, who had already made aggressive moves against mainland China, would try to invade the Indies. In response, the Dutch colonial government – which had previously limited military training for native Indonesians – began teaching the populace how to deal with air raids. To co-ordinate the preparations, the Dutch formed Air Raid Preparation teams. Sudirman, respected in the community, was asked to lead the Cilacap chapter. Aside from teaching local citizens the safety procedures for dealing with an air raid, Sudirman established watchposts throughout the area. He and the Dutch would also have passing aircraft drop materials to simulate a bombing run; this was intended to improve response time.[36]
After the
Pembela Tanah Air
In early 1944, after a year as a representative at the Japanese-run regency council board (Syu Sangikai),
Sudirman's time as a PETA commander passed uneventfully until 21 April 1945, when PETA troops under the command of Kusaeri began to rebel against the Japanese. Ordered to stop the rebellion, Sudirman agreed to do so only if the PETA rebels would not be harmed, and places harbouring them not razed; this condition was accepted by the Japanese commander, and Sudirman and his troops began searching for the rebels.
Although Kusaeri's men initially shot at the commander, after Sudirman used a loudspeaker to tell them they would not be harmed, they backed down.[46] Kusaeri surrendered on 25 April.[i] This garnered support for Sudirman within the occupation forces, although several high-ranking Japanese officers expressed concern over Sudirman's support for Indonesian independence. Sudirman and his men were soon sent to a camp in Bogor, ostensibly for training; however, they were tasked with hard labour as a way to prevent a further uprising, and rumours circulated that the PETA officers would be killed.[47]
National revolution
Commander of the Armed Forces
After news of the
In late August,
As the newly independent nation did not yet have a professional military, on 5 October 1945 Sukarno passed a decree establishing the
On 12 November 1945, at the first general meeting of Army leadership, Sudirman was elected Commander of the Armed Forces (Panglima Besar) following two deadlocked votes. In the third round, Oerip had 21 votes to Sudirman's 22; the division commanders from Sumatra voted unanimously for Sudirman and swayed the ballot in his favour.[n][61][62][63] Sudirman, aged 29 at the time, was surprised at his selection and offered to relinquish the leadership position to Oerip, but the meeting did not allow it. Oerip himself, who had lost control of the meeting prior to the vote, was glad to no longer be in charge of the entire Army. Sudirman kept Oerip to serve as chief of staff under him. In accordance with his new role, Sudirman was promoted to general.[64][65][66] After the meeting, Sudirman returned to Banyumas to await confirmation as leader of the TKR and began developing strategies on how repel Allied advances.[65][67] The Indonesians feared that the Dutch, through the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (Nederlandsch Indië Civil Administratie, or NICA), would attempt to retake the archipelago; soldiers of the Dutch-British alliance had landed in Java in September, and a large battle had occurred in Surabaya during late October and early November.[68] This instability, as well as Sukarno's uncertainty about Sudirman's qualifications,[o] led to a delay in Sudirman's confirmation.[69]
While waiting for his appointment to be confirmed, in late November Sudirman ordered the Fifth Division to attack Allied forces stationed in Ambarawa, once again with Isdiman in charge; the city was considered strategically important owing to its military barracks and training facilities dating from the colonial period. This assault was countered by an air strike and the use of tanks, which forced the division to retreat; Isdiman died in the battle, killed by a
The Battle of Ambarawa brought Sudirman greater attention at a national level,[54] and generally silenced whispers that he was unfit for military command because of his lack of military experience and previous employment as a schoolteacher.[74] Ultimately, Sudirman was chosen as his loyalty was undoubted, while Oerip's former pledge of loyalty to the Dutch led to him being viewed with suspicion. Sudirman was confirmed as commander of the Armed Forces on 18 December 1945.[69] He was replaced as head of the Fifth Division by Colonel Sutiro,[60] and began to focus on strategic problems.[75] This was done partly by establishing a board of advisors, which gave the general advice on both political and military issues.[q] Oerip handled many of the military matters.[76]
Together, Sudirman and Oerip were able to reduce the differences and mistrust between former KNIL and PETA troops, although some troops were reluctant to be subordinated to a central command, instead choosing to follow their popularly selected battalion commanders. The government renamed the Army twice in January 1946, first to the Peoples' Salvation Armed Forces (Tentara Keselamatan Rakjat), then to the Republic of Indonesia Military Forces (Tentara Repoeblik Indonesia, or TRI/RIMF).[77][78][79] This was followed by the formal establishment of a navy and air force in early 1946.[78] In the meantime, the Indonesian government had moved from Jakarta – now under Dutch control – to Yogyakarta in January; delegates led by Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir spent much of April and May unsuccessfully negotiating for Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty.[80] On 25 May Sudirman was reconfirmed as commander of the Armed Forces of the expanded military,[78] after its reorganisation.[77][81] At the ceremony, Sudirman swore to protect the republic "until he shed his last drop of blood."[r][82]
The leftist Minister of Defence
Negotiations with the Dutch
Meanwhile, Sjahrir continued to work on negotiations with the Allied forces. On 7 October 1946, Sjahrir and the former Dutch Prime Minister,
In early 1947, with the Linggadjati Agreement granting relative peace, Sudirman began work on consolidating the TKR with various laskar. As part of a committee, Sudirman began reorganising the military; they reached an agreement in May 1947, and on 3 June 1947 the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, or TNI) was formalised; it consisted of TKR forces and various laskar groups,[94] which Sudirman had included only after realising the extent of their manipulation by the political parties.[96] However, the ceasefire obtained through the Linggadjati Agreement was not long lasting. On 21 July 1947 the Dutch forces – which had occupied areas left by the British during their withdrawal – launched Operation Product, and quickly gained control of large swaths of Java and Sumatra; the national government in Yogyakarta remained untouched.[97] Sudirman called the army to fight, using the code "Ibu Pertiwi is calling! Ibu Pertiwi is calling!",[u][98] and later delivered several speeches over RRI in an unsuccessful attempt to encourage soldiers to fight against the Dutch.[99] However, the Indonesian soldiers were unprepared and their lines crumbled quickly.[100]
Pressured by the United Nations, which had looked at the situation in the former East Indies with disdain, on 29 August 1947 the Dutch established the
In this programme, by presidential decree Sudirman was no longer commander-in-chief of the military starting on 2 January 1948. He was demoted to lieutenant general, while Chief of the Air Force
As the rationalisation programme was winding down, Sjarifuddin began gathering soldiers from the
This rebellion, and ongoing political instability, sapped Sudirman of much of his remaining strength. On 5 October 1948, after celebrations of the military's third anniversary, Sudirman collapsed. After being examined by numerous doctors, he was diagnosed with
Although he continued to issue orders, Sudirman only returned to active duty on 17 December; in light of the growing tension between the Dutch and Indonesian forces, he ordered the TNI soldiers to maintain an increased level of awareness;
No. 1/PB/D/48
- We have been attacked.
- On 19 December 1948 the Dutch Military attacked the city of Yogyakarta and the Maguwo airfield.
- The Dutch government has negated the Ceasefire.
- All soldiers are to deal with the Dutch attack as previously agreed.[x]
Sudirman's radio address, from Imran (1980, p. 55)
He then went to the Presidential Palace in central Yogyakarta, where the government leaders were discussing an ultimatum which stated that the city would be stormed unless the leadership accepted colonial rule. Sudirman urged that the president and vice-president leave the city and fight as guerrillas, actions they had previously promised, but this suggestion was rejected. Although his doctors forbade it, Sudirman received permission from Sukarno to join his men. The central government evacuated to the
Guerrilla warfare
Sudirman first went to his official home and gathered sensitive documents, which he burned to prevent them falling into Dutch hands.
Outside of
The constant Dutch attacks led Sudirman, perhaps at the suggestion of one of his men, to change his clothes and give his old outfit to one of his soldiers, Second Lieutenant Heru Kesser – who bore a resemblance to Sudirman.[126][128][129] Kesser was ordered to head south with a large company of soldiers, remove the clothes, and furtively return north, while Sudirman waited in Karangnongko. The diversion was successful, and on 27 December Sudirman and his men made their way to Jambu Village. Arriving on 9 January 1949, Sudirman met with several government ministers who had not been present during the Dutch attack on Yogyakarta: Supeno, Susanto Tirtoprojo, and Susilowati. With the politicians, Sudirman made his way to Banyutuwo, ordering some of his soldiers to linger back and hold off Dutch ground troops. In Banyutuwo, they held for over a week. However, on 21 January, when Dutch forces approached the village, Sudirman and his entourage were forced to leave, fighting their way out in heavy rain.[126]
Sudirman and his troops continued to make their way through the jungles and forests, eventually arriving at Sobo, near Mount Lawu, on 18 February. During the journey, Sudirman used a radio set to convey orders to local TNI troops if he believed that the region was secure. Feeling weaker because of the physical hardships he had faced, including malnutrition, and believing the area to be safe, Sudirman decided that Sobo would serve as his guerrilla headquarters.[130][131] The local commander, Lieutenant Colonel Wiliater Hutagalung, served as his go-between with the other TNI leaders. Aware that international opinion, which was beginning to condemn Dutch actions in Indonesia, could bring Indonesia greater recognition, Sudirman and Hutagalung discussed possible terms of action before agreeing on a large-scale assault.[132] Meanwhile, the Dutch began to spread propaganda claiming that they had captured Sudirman; this claim was intended to break the morale of the guerrillas.[54][133]
Sudirman ordered Hutagalung to begin planning a full-scale assault, in which TNI soldiers – in uniform – would attack the Dutch and show their strength in front of foreign reporters and United Nations investigative teams. Hutagalung, together with officers under his commander Colonel
Under increased pressure from the United Nations, on 7 May 1949 Dutch–Indonesian negotiations resulted in the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement, a controversial measure which guaranteed Dutch withdrawal from Yogyakarta, among other points;[y][136] The Dutch withdrawal commenced in late June, and the Indonesian leadership began returning to Yogyakarta from exile in early July. Sukarno ordered Sudirman to return to Yogyakarta as well, but Sudirman refused to let the Dutch withdraw without a fight; he considered the TNI to now be strong enough to defeat the dispirited Dutch. Although he was promised medicine and support in Yogyakarta, Sudirman refused to return to the political leadership, whom he considered acquiescent to the Dutch. He only agreed to return after receiving a letter, although sources disagree on its sender.[z] On 10 July, Sudirman and his group returned to Yogyakarta, where they were greeted by thousands of civilians and warmly received by the political elite there.[137][138] The reporter Rosihan Anwar, who was present when the letter was delivered, wrote in 1973 that "Sudirman had to return to Yogyakarta to avoid any perceptions of a rift among the republic's top leaders".[139]
Post-war and death
In early August Sudirman approached Sukarno and asked him to continue the guerrilla war; Sudirman did not expect the Dutch to abide by the Roem-Royen Agreement, based on the failings of the previous agreements. Sukarno disagreed, which was a blow to Sudirman. When Sudirman threatened to resign his post, blaming the government's inconsistency for his tuberculosis and Oerip's death in November 1948, Sukarno threatened to do so as well.[108][140][141] As he thought that such a resignation would have a destabilising effect, Sudirman stayed his hand,[142] and a Java-wide cease fire came into effect on 11 August 1949.[143]
Continuing to suffer from tuberculosis, Sudirman was checked into Panti Rapih hospital,
Sudirman died in Magelang at 18:30 on 29 January 1950; this was reported in a special broadcast over RRI.[145] Upon receiving news of his death, the Sudirman family home received numerous visitors, including the entirety of the 9th Brigade, which was stationed nearby.[148] The following morning Sudirman's body was brought to Yogyakarta. As the funeral convoy passed, led by four tanks and consisting of eighty motor vehicles,[147] thousands of mourners stood at the sides of the streets. The convoy was organised by members of the 9th Brigade.[148]
The viewing, held at the Great Mosque of Yogyakarta in the afternoon, was attended by numerous political and military elite from both Indonesia and foreign countries; this included Prime Minister Abdul Halim, Minister of Defence Hamengkubuwana IX, Minister of Health Johannes Leimena, Minister of Justice Abdoel Gaffar Pringgodigdo, Minister of Information Arnold Mononutu, Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma, Colonel Paku Alam VIII, and Suharto. The viewing was closed with a 24-gun salute.[147] Sudirman's body was brought to Semaki Heroes' Cemetery on foot, with a crowd of mourners 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) long trailing behind.[147] He was interred next to Oerip, after another gun salute. His wife filled in the first scoop of dirt,[150] followed by the government ministers.[147] The national government ordered flags to be flown at half-mast throughout the country,[146] and Sudirman was promoted to full general.[54] Major General Tahi Bonar Simatupang was selected as the new leader of the armed forces.[147] Sudirman's memoirs were published later that year; a series of his speeches were also published in 1970.[151]
Legacy
An obituary in the Yogyakarta-based daily Kedaulatan Rakjat wrote that Indonesia had lost a "brave and true hero".[aa][146] Colonel Paku Alam VIII, in charge of the Yogyakarta area, told the national news agency Antara that all Indonesians, especially the armed forces, had "lost a father figure who did uncountable deeds for his country".[ab][54] The Indonesian Muslim leader Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, writing soon after Sudirman's death, described the general as a "symbol of the strength of spirit shown by Indonesian heroes,"[ac][89] while the Muslim politician Muhammad Isa Anshary described Sudirman as a "son of the revolution, as he was born in the revolution, and raised by the revolution."[ad][152] In a radio speech, Hatta described Sudirman as impossible to control and hard-headed, but ultimately intent on doing what was right for the country; Hatta noted that, although Sudirman often did not like the government's position, he would generally obey his orders.[54] However, Hamengkubuwana IX noted that KNIL trained soldiers such as Abdul Haris Nasution and Tahi Bonar Simatupang were disappointed in Sudirman because of his background and poor knowledge of military techniques.[153]
Modern opinions in Indonesia tend to be laudatory. Sardiman, a professor of history at
Sudirman received numerous
According to McGregor, the military increasingly used Sudirman's image as a symbol of leadership as it gained more political power.[151] An image of Sudirman was featured on every denomination of the 1968 series of rupiah.[af][167] He featured as a major character in several war films, including Janur Kuning (Yellow Coconut Leaf; 1979) and Serangan Fajar (Dawn Attack; 1982).[151]
Numerous museums have been dedicated to Sudirman. His childhood home in
Notes
- ^ a b 24 January 1916 is the date recognised by the Indonesian government. The actual date may be different (Adi 2011, pp. 1–2). The historian Solichin Salam, for example, gives 7 February 1912 as Sudirman's date of birth, while fellow historian Yusuf Puar gives 7 September 1912 (quoted in Said 1991, p. 80).
- ^ Karsid and his wife had moved to Rembang in 1915, after Karsid left his job on a Dutch-owned sugarcane plantation in Purbalingga (Sardiman 2008, p. 8); other sources suggest he was fired (Adi 2011, pp. 1–2). The journey was 145 kilometres (90 mi) by land, which Siyem made while pregnant (Sardiman 2008, p. 8).
- ^ Cokrosunaryo had no children (Imran 1980, p. 2).
- ^ Adi (2011, p. 3) writes that Sudirman was teased for his background, as most of his classmates would have been from old noble families or ones which had strong ties to the Dutch.
- ^ Wirotomo literally translates as "main gate" (Sardiman 2008, p. 19).
- ^ Hizboel Wathan was open to children as young as seven (Sardiman 2008, p. 37).
- ^ Sources differ on who closed the school, either the Dutch (Sardiman 2008, p. 108) or the Japanese (Imran 1980, p. 17).
- ^ The rank of an officer was based on his standing in society. The lowest-level officers, platoon leaders known as shodanco, were recent graduates. Company commanders, known as cudanco, were established members of society. The battalion commanders were drawn from respected members of society (Sardiman 2008, p. 109). Said (1991, p. 56) writes that the daidanco served mainly as father figures and motivators, and as such received little military training. Sudirman would continue to serve as a father figure throughout the revolution.
- ^ For his role in the rebellion Kusaeri was sentenced to death by the Japanese military court. However, owing to pressures against the Japanese home islands by Allied forces he was not executed (Adi 2011, p. 32).
- Borneo through 1945 (Coates 2006, pp. 278–280, 282), and the British retook Singapore in September 1945 (Bayly & Harper 2007, p. 194).
- ^ Said (1991, p. 23) gives the date as 22 August, while Anderson (2005, pp. 103–106) gives the date as 23 August.
- ^ Soeprijadi, a PETA soldier who had led an uprising against Japanese forces in Blitar in February 1945, was thought dead. The historian Amrin Imran suggests that Soeprijadi's appointment may have been a way to see if he was still alive; it may have been thought that he would have certainly contacted the government in Jakarta to take over this post if he were (Imran 1983, pp. 71–72). Meanwhile, Said (1991, p. 28) suggests that Soeprijadi's selection was an indication of Sukarno's hesitancy to establish an army.
- ^ The Fifth Division covered the Kedu and Banyumas areas. It was one of ten divisions established by Oerip (Sardiman 2008, pp. 126–127).
- ^ Said (1991, p. 3) writes that the lack of political guidance while Oerip was commander-in-chief had led to the military choosing its own leader, rather than have one appointed. This meeting also saw the selection of Hamengkubuwana IX as minister of defence; his selection was not recognised by the government, which chose Amir Sjarifuddin (Said 1991, p. 41).
- ^ Sudirman at the time had but two years military experience (Adi 2011, p. 50) The other leading candidate, Oerip, had been a military officer since before Sudirman was born (Imran 1983, p. 27).
- ^ The historian Richard McMillan, writing in 2005, suggests the withdrawal was not in response to the attack, but as the British mandate to repatriate prisoners of war had been completed (quoted in Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 22).
- ^ Said (1991, pp. 59–61) notes that numerous Indonesian government and military leaders from after the war have stated that they served on this board
- ^ Original: "... sampai titi' darah jang penghabisan."
- ^ The Socialist Party of Indonesia, for example, had Pesindo, while the Masyumi Party had Hisbollah (Said 1991, p. 24).
- ^ Prime Minister Sjahrir and several other government ministers were kidnapped on 27 June 1946 but released shortly afterwards. On 3 July Major General Sudarsono Reksoprodjo arrived at the presidential palace in Yogyakarta with a note, purportedly from Sudirman, that Sudirman was now president and had dismissed the cabinet. Sudarsono and his followers, many of whom were known to support the communist Tan Malaka, were arrested. Sudirman denied any involvement, telling Sukarno that his orders were always handwritten (Said 1991, pp. 63–65).
- ^ Original: "Iboe Pertiwi memanggil! Iboe Pertiwi memanggil!" Ibu Pertiwi is a personification of the country.
- ^ This led to a purge against leftists over several months. Sjarifuddin was among those executed for their involvement in the rebellion (Adi 2011, pp. 82–84).
- ^ In the event the central government was captured, this plan allowed for the creation of a military-dominated government in Java that was led by the central headquarters. This plan was ultimately put in motion after Operation Kraai (Said 1991, pp. 102–105).
- ^ Original:
Perintah Kilat
No. 1/PB/D/48- Kita telah diserang.
- Pada tanggal 19 Desember 1948 Angkatan Perang Belanda menjerang kota Jogjakarta dan lapangan terbang Magoewo.
- Pemerintah Belanda telah membatalkan persetoedjoean Gentjatan Sendjata.
- Semoea Angkatan Perang mendjalankan rentjana jang telah ditetapkan oentoek menghadapi serangan Belanda.
- ^ This agreement was initially opposed by both the Dutch and Indonesian militaries but ultimately passed (Said 1991, pp. 116–118).
- ^ Said (1991, p. 119) writes that the letter was sent by Hamengkubuwana IX and delivered by Suharto, while Imran (1980, pp. 75–80) credits a letter from Sudirman's subordinate and close friend, Colonel Gatot Soebroto.
- ^ Original: "... seorang pahlawan jang djudjur dan berani"
- ^ Original: "... seluruh rakjat Indonesia umumnja dan angkatan perang chususnja, kehilangan seorang bapak jg tidak ternilai djasa2nja kepada tanah air ..."
- ^ Original: " ... lambang dari kebangunan djiwa pahlawan Indonesia."
- ^ Original: "Putera revolusi, karena dia lahir dalam revolusi, dan dibesarkan oleh revolusi.
- ^ The Bintang Sakti is a high-level military award for showing bravery above and beyond the call of duty (UU No. 20/2009, pp. 4, 10, 23). The Bintang Mahaputera is a high-level award for persons who have aided Indonesia's development, become experts in a certain field, or are widely recognised for their sacrifices for the country (UU No. 20/2009, pp. 4, 9, 23). The Bintang Republik Indonesia is the highest award available for civilians (Saragih 2012, SBY bestows honors).
- ^ This included the 1, 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 rupiah bills (Cuhaj 2012, pp. 501–502).
References
- ^ a b c d Adi 2011, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 1.
- ^ Imran 1900, p. 3.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, p. 4.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 7.
- ^ a b c Adi 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 12.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 10.
- ^ Imran 1900, p. 10.
- ^ a b c Adi 2011, p. 4.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 20–21.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, p. 6.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 5.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 73.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 28.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 22.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 7–9.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 39.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 46.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 74.
- ^ a b c d Adi 2011, pp. 10–13.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, p. 15.
- ^ Tjokropranolo 1992, p. 326.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 76.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 14.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 80–83.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 84.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 56.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 66.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 98.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 18–24.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 17.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Imran 1980, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, pp. 28–30.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 6.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 109–112.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 36.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 31.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, p. 32.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 36.
- ^ Anderson 2005, pp. 103–106.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 11.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 42–43.
- ^ a b c d e f KR 1950, Djenderal Sudirman Wafat.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 123.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 13.
- ^ Anderson 2005, pp. 232–234.
- ^ Imran 1983, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 28.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Nasution 2011, p. 196.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 30.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 132.
- ^ Imran 1983, pp. 74–79.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, p. 46.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 20.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, p. 32.
- ^ Ricklefs 1993, p. 217.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, p. 50.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 136.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 22.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 137.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 216.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 142.
- ^ Said 1991, pp. 59–61.
- ^ a b Anderson 2005, pp. 372–373.
- ^ a b c Adi 2011, p. 51.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 44.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 53.
- ^ Imran 1983, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 35.
- ^ Imran 1983, pp. 82–84.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 145.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, p. 58.
- ^ Said 1991, pp. 63–65.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 146.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, p. 218.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 60–61.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 151.
- ^ Britannica, Linggadjati Agreement.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 66.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, pp. 38–40.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 155.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 67.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 71.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 157.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 73.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 68.
- ^ Kahin 1952, p. 223.
- ^ a b Kahin 1952, pp. 218–221.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 79–80.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, pp. 42–45.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 24.
- ^ a b Said 1991, pp. 69–75.
- ^ a b c d Jakarta City Government, Sudirman.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, p. 160.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, pp. 82–84.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 77.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 25.
- ^ a b Adi 2011, pp. 85–87.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, p. 164.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 101.
- ^ Adi 2011, p. 88.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 179.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 92–95.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 99.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 57.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 97–99.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 58.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Adi 2011, pp. 102–105.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 62.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 64.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 28.
- ^ Adi 2011, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 65.
- ^ a b c Adi 2011, pp. 108–110.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 138.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 74.
- ^ Said 1991, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Said 1991, pp. 116–118.
- ^ Imran 1980, pp. 75–80.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 199.
- ^ Setiadi & Yuliawati 2012, p. 47.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 129.
- ^ Jakarta City Government, Oerip Soemohardjo.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 122.
- ^ a b Sardiman 2008, p. 203.
- ^ a b Imran 1980, p. 84.
- ^ a b c KR 1950, Pak Dirman Istirahat.
- ^ a b c d e f KR 1950, Perdjalanan Terachir.
- ^ a b c KR 1950, Magelang Berkabung.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 83.
- ^ Imran 1980, p. 86.
- ^ a b c d e f McGregor 2007, p. 127.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 219.
- ^ Said 1991, p. 55.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 93.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 174.
- ^ a b McGregor 2007, p. 128.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 130.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 133.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 220.
- ^ Tjokropranolo 1992, p. 327.
- ^ Indonesian State Secretariat, Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna.
- ^ Indonesian State Secretariat, Bintang Mahaputera Pratama.
- ^ Indonesian State Secretariat, Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna.
- ^ Indonesian State Secretariat, Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana.
- ^ Indonesian State Secretariat, Daftar Nama Pahlawan.
- ^ McGregor 2007, p. 139.
- ^ Cuhaj 2012, pp. 501–502.
- ^ Sardiman 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Magelang City Government, Museum Sudirman.
- ^ Jenderal Soedirman University, About UNSOED.
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