Suez Canal
Suez Canal | |
---|---|
Coordinates | 30°42′18″N 32°20′39″E / 30.70500°N 32.34417°E |
Specifications | |
Length | 193.3 km (120.1 miles) |
Maximum boat beam | 77.5 m (254 ft 3 in) |
Maximum boat draft | 20.1 m (66 ft) |
Locks | None |
Navigation authority | Suez Canal Authority |
History | |
Construction began | 25 April 1859 |
Date completed | 17 November 1869 |
Geography | |
Start point | Port Said |
End point | Suez Port |
The Suez Canal (
In 1858, French diplomat
The original canal featured a single-lane waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass and the
The canal was the property of the Egyptian government, but European shareholders, mostly British and French, owned the
The Egyptian government launched construction in 2014 to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km (22 mi) to speed up the canal's transit time. The expansion intended to nearly double the capacity of the Suez Canal, from 49 to 97 ships per day.[9] At a cost of LE 59.4 billion (US$9 billion), this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities and individuals.
The Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel in 2016. This side channel, at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal. As the East Container Terminal is located on the Canal itself, before the construction of the new side channel it was not possible to berth or unberth vessels at the terminal while a convoy was running.[10]
Precursors
Ancient west–east
Second millennium BCE
James Henry Breasted attributes the earliest-known attempt to construct a canal to the first cataract, near Aswan, to the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt and its completion to Senusret III (1878–1839 BCE) of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt.[15]
The legendary
In his Meteorology, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) wrote:
One of their kings tried to make a canal to it (for it would have been of no little advantage to them for the whole region to have become navigable; Sesostris is said to have been the first of the ancient kings to try), but he found that the sea was higher than the land. So he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it.[19]
Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) wrote:
165. Next comes the
Ptolemy II, who made a trench 100 feet (30 m) wide, 30 feet (9 m) deep and about 35 miles (55 km) long, as far as the Bitter Lakes.[20]
In the 20th century, the northward extension of the later Darius I canal was discovered, extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.[21] This was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating the dates of ancient sites along its course.[21]
The reliefs of the
Canals dug by Necho, Darius I and Ptolemy
Remnants of an ancient west–east canal through the
According to the
Herodotus was told that 120,000 men perished in this undertaking, but this figure is doubtless exaggerated.
With Necho's death, work was discontinued. Herodotus tells that the reason the project was abandoned was because of a warning received from an oracle that others would benefit from its successful completion.[12][32] Necho's war with Nebuchadnezzar II most probably prevented the canal's continuation.
Necho's project was completed by
King Darius says: I am a Persian; setting out from Persia I conquered Egypt. I ordered to dig this canal from the river that is called Nile and flows in Egypt, to the sea that begins in Persia. Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended
— Darius Inscription
The canal left the Nile at Bubastis. An inscription
In the second half of the 19th century, French
Receding Red Sea and the dwindling Nile
The Red Sea is believed by some historians to have gradually receded over the centuries, its coastline slowly moving southward away from Lake Timsah[17][18] and the Great Bitter Lake.[11][12] Coupled with persistent accumulations of Nile silt, maintenance and repair of Ptolemy's canal became increasingly cumbersome over each passing century.
Two hundred years after the construction of Ptolemy's canal,
Cairo to the Red Sea
The ancient canal was re-excavated by Roman emperor Trajan in the first century AD, who named it Amnis Traianus after himself. He reportedly moved its mouth on the Nile further south, at the site of what is now Old Cairo.[43] By the time of the Arab conquest in 641 AD, this canal had fallen out of use.[44] The commander of the Muslim force, Amr ibn al-As, ordered that it be restored so as to improve connections between Egypt and Medina, the Muslim capital at the time. The Muslim canal was excavated further north from Trajan's canal, joining the Nile close to what is now the Sayyida Zaynab neighbourhood of Cairo.[44] This canal reportedly ended near modern Suez.[11][45] The site of the former Roman channel near the Nile was absorbed into the new city of Fustat.[44][43]
A geography treatise De Mensura Orbis Terrae written by the Irish monk Dicuil (born late 8th century) reports a conversation with another monk, Fidelis, who had sailed on the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea during a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the first half of the 8th century.[46]
The
Conception by Venice
The successful 1488 navigation of southern Africa by
Venetian leaders, driven to desperation, contemplated digging a waterway between the Red Sea and the Nile—anticipating the Suez Canal by almost 400 years—to bring the luxury trade flooding to their doors again. But this remained a dream.
— Colin Thubron, Seafarers: The Venetians (1980), p. 102
Despite entering negotiations with Egypt's ruling
Ottoman attempts
During the 16th century, the Ottoman
Napoleon's discovery of an ancient canal
During the
Later, Napoleon, who became the French Emperor in 1804, contemplated the construction of a north–south canal to connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. But the plan was abandoned because it incorrectly concluded that the waterway would require locks to operate, the construction of which would be costly and time-consuming. The belief in the need for locks was based on the erroneous belief that the Red Sea was 8.5 m (28 ft) higher than the Mediterranean. This was the result of using fragmentary survey measurements taken in wartime during Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition.[54]
As late as 1861, the unnavigable ancient route discovered by Napoleon from Bubastis to the Red Sea still channelled water as far east as Kassassin.[12]
History of the Suez Canal
Interim period
Despite the construction challenges that could have been the result of the alleged difference in sea levels, the idea of finding a shorter route to the east remained alive. In 1830, General Francis Chesney submitted a report to the British government that stated that there was no difference in elevation and that the Suez Canal was feasible, but his report received no further attention. Lieutenant Waghorn established his "Overland Route", which transported post and passengers to India via Egypt.[55][56]
In 1846, Prosper Enfantin's Société d'Études du Canal de Suez invited a number of experts, among them Robert Stephenson, Negrelli and Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue to study the feasibility of the Suez Canal (with the assistance of Linant de Bellefonds). Bourdaloue's survey of the isthmus was the first generally accepted evidence that there was no practical difference in elevation between the two seas. Britain, however, feared that a canal open to everyone might interfere with its India trade and therefore preferred a connection by train from Alexandria via Cairo to Suez, which Stephenson eventually built.
Construction by the Suez Canal Company
Preparations (1854–1858)
In 1854 and 1856,
The British government had opposed the project from the outset to its completion. The British, who controlled both the
International opinion was initially skeptical, and shares of the Suez Canal Company did not sell well overseas. Britain, Austria, and Russia did not buy a significant number of shares. With assistance from the Cattaui banking family, and their relationship with James de Rothschild of the French House of Rothschild bonds and shares were successfully promoted in France and other parts of Europe.[60] All French shares were quickly sold in France. A contemporary British skeptic claimed "One thing is sure... our local merchant community doesn't pay practical attention at all to this grand work, and it is legitimate to doubt that the canal's receipts... could ever be sufficient to recover its maintenance fee. It will never become a large ship's accessible way in any case."[61]
Construction (1859–1869)
Work started on the shore of the future Port Said on 25 April 1859.
The excavation took some 10 years, with forced labour (corvée) being employed until 1864 to dig out the canal.[62] Some sources estimate that over 30,000 people were working on the canal at any given period, that more than 1.5 million people from various countries were employed,[54][63] and that tens of thousands of labourers died, many of them from cholera and similar epidemics.
Estimates of the number of deaths vary widely with Gamal Abdel Nasser citing 120,000 deaths upon nationalisation of the canal in a 26 July 1956 speech and the company's chief medical officer reporting no higher than 2.49 deaths per thousand in 1866.[55] Doubling these estimates with a generous assumption of 50,000 working staff per year over 11 years would put a conservative estimate at fewer than 3,000 deaths. More closely relying on the limited reported data of the time, the number would be fewer than 1,000.[55]
Company towns
From its inauguration, till 1925, the Suez Canal Company built a series of company towns along the canal to serve its operation. They included ports and their facilities as well as housing for employees segregated by race or nationality.[64] These were Port Said (1869) and Port Fuad (1925) at the canal's northern entrance by the Mediterranenan, Ismailia (1862) near the middle and north of Lake Timsah, and Port Twefik (1867) at the canal's southern entrance on the Red Sea.[65]
Inauguration (17 November 1869)
The canal opened under French control in November 1869. The opening ceremonies began at Port Said on the evening of 15 November, with illuminations, fireworks, and a banquet on the yacht of the
On the morning of 17 November, a procession of ships entered the canal, headed by the L'Aigle. Among the ships following was
Ismailia was the scene of more celebrations the following day, including a military "march past", illuminations and fireworks, and a ball at the Governor's Palace. The convoy set off again on the morning of 19 November, for the remainder of the trip to Suez.[66] After Suez, many of the participants headed for Cairo, and then to the Pyramids, where a new road had been built for the occasion.[54]
An Anchor Line ship, the S.S. Dido, became the first to pass through the Canal from South to North.[73][74]
Initial difficulties (1869–1871)
Although numerous technical, political, and financial problems had been overcome, the final cost was more than double the original estimate.
The Khedive, in particular, was able to overcome initial reservations held by both British and French creditors by enlisting the help of the Sursock family, whose deep connections proved invaluable in securing much international support for the project.[75][76]
After the opening, the Suez Canal Company was in financial difficulties. The remaining works were completed only in 1871, and traffic was below expectations in the first two years. De Lesseps therefore tried to increase revenues by interpreting the kind of net ton referred to in the second concession (tonneau de capacité) as meaning a ship's cargo capacity and not only the theoretical net tonnage of the "Moorsom System" introduced in Britain by the Merchant Shipping Act in 1854. The ensuing commercial and diplomatic activities resulted in the International Commission of Constantinople establishing a specific kind of net tonnage and settling the question of tariffs in its protocol of 18 December 1873.[77] This was the origin of the Suez Canal Net Tonnage and the Suez Canal Special Tonnage Certificate, both of which are still in use today.
Growth and reorganisation
The canal had an immediate and dramatic effect on
The European
In 1900, a dredging trial was held by the Suez Canal Company to determine which ship would assist in the widening and deepening of the canal.[86][87][88] One of the ships trialed in the dredging was The Hercules, a ship owned by the Queensland Government in Australia.[88] The Hercules dredged deposits of granite and limestone, but it was determined at the end of the trial that the Hercules would not be used for the dredging of the Suez Canal.[86] The ship was then returned to Brisbane, Australia in January 1901.[86]
The
Suez Crisis
In 1951 Egypt repudiated the 1936 treaty with Great Britain. In October 1954 the UK tentatively agreed to remove its troops from the Canal Zone. Because of Egyptian overtures towards the Soviet Union, both the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to financially support construction of the Aswan Dam. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser responded by nationalising the canal on 26 July 1956[90] and transferring it to the Suez Canal Authority, intending to finance the dam project using revenue from the canal. On the same day that the canal was nationalised Nasser also closed the Straits of Tiran to all Israeli ships.[91] This led to the Suez Crisis in which the UK, France, and Israel invaded Egypt. According to the pre-agreed war plans under the Protocol of Sèvres, Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula on 29 October, forcing Egypt to engage them militarily, and allowing the Anglo-French partnership to declare the resultant fighting a threat to stability in the Middle East and enter the war – officially to separate the two forces but in reality to regain the Canal and bring down the Nasser government.[92][93][94]
To save the British from what he thought was a disastrous action and to stop the war from a possible escalation, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester B. Pearson proposed the creation of the first United Nations peacekeeping force to ensure access to the canal for all and an Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula. On 4 November 1956, a majority at the United Nations voted for Pearson's peacekeeping resolution, which mandated the UN peacekeepers to stay in Sinai unless both Egypt and Israel agreed to their withdrawal. The United States backed this proposal by putting pressure on the British government through the selling of sterling, which would cause it to depreciate. Britain then called a ceasefire, and later agreed to withdraw its troops by the end of the year. Pearson was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. As a result of damage and ships sunk under orders from Nasser the canal was closed until April 1957, when it was cleared with UN assistance.[95] A UN force (UNEF) was established to maintain the free navigability of the canal, and peace in the Sinai Peninsula.
Arab–Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973
After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt closed the Canal to Israeli shipping, despite UN Security Council resolutions from 1949 and 1951 urging it not to, on the grounds that hostilities had ended with the 1949 armistice agreement.
Egypt closed the Canal again during the 1956 Suez Crisis.[96]
On 16 May 1967, Nasser ordered UNEF peacekeeping forces out of the Sinai Peninsula, including the Suez Canal area. Egyptian troops were sent into Sinai to take their place. Israel protested Nasser's on 21 May order to close the Straits of Tiran to Israeli trade.[97]
After the 1967 Six-Day War, Israeli forces occupied the Sinai Peninsula, including the entire east bank of the Suez Canal. In the following years the tensions between Egypt and Israel intensified and from March 1969 until August 1970, a war of attrition took place as the then Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, tried to retake the territories occupied by Israel during the conflict. The fighting ceased after the death of Nasser on 28 September 1970. After this conflict there were no changes in the distribution of territory, but the underlying tensions persisted.[98]
Unwilling to allow the Israelis to use the canal, Egypt imposed a blockade which closed the canal to all shipping immediately after the beginning of the Six-Day War. The canal remained blocked for eight years. There was no anticipation of this event and consequently fifteen cargo ships, known as the "Yellow Fleet", were trapped in the canal, and remained there until its reopening in 1975.[99]
On 6 October 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, the Canal was the scene of Operation Badr, in which the Egyptian army crossed into Israeli-occupied Sinai. Much wreckage from this conflict remains visible along the canal's edges.[100] On 22 October 1973, Israeli forces counter-attacked by crossing the Suez Canal into Egypt and advancing towards Suez City,[101] where they remained until after Israel and Egypt signed on 18 January 1974, an agreement, commonly known as Sinai I, with the official name of Sinai Separation of Forces Agreement, which included a withdrawal of Israeli forces from the western side of the Suez Canal.[102]
Mine clearing operations (1974–75)
After the Yom Kippur War, the United States initiated
UN presence
The
Bypass expansion
In 2014, months after taking office as
Incidents
In 2004 the canal was closed for three days when the oil tanker Tropic Brilliance became stuck.[111][112]
On 18 October 2017 the OOCL Japan ran aground causing an obstruction which blocked the canal for a few hours.[113][114][111]
2021 obstruction
On 23 March 2021, at around 05:40 UTC (07:40 local time),
When the incident began, many economists and trade experts commented on the effects of the obstruction if not resolved quickly, citing how important the Suez was to global trade; the incident was likely to drastically affect the global economy because of the trapped goods scheduled to go through the canal. Among those goods, oil shipments were the most affected in the immediate aftermath, due to a significant number still blocked with no other way to reach their destination.[119][120] Referring to the European and American market, a few maritime experts have disputed the prediction of a drastic effect on trade, saying this "really isn't a substantial transit route for crude" according to Marshall Steeves, energy markets analyst at IHS Markit, and "there are existing stocks" according to Camille Egloff of Boston Consulting Group and alternative sources of supply, noting that traffic only slowed down and that it might only have impacted sectors with existing shortages (such as the semiconductor industry).[121][122] The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) estimated that up to $3 billion worth of cargo passes through the Suez Canal every day.[123]
It was said the blockage would have an impact on cargo schedules around the world. Shipping companies were also considering whether to divert their ships along the much longer route around the Cape of Good Hope. The first container ship diverted was Ever Given's sister ship, Ever Greet.[124]
Ever Given was re-floated on 29 March.[125][126] Within a few hours, cargo traffic resumed, slowly resolving the backlog of around 450 ships.[127] The first ship to pass through the canal after Ever Given's recovery was YM Wish, a Hong Kong-based cargo ship.[128]
On 2 April 2021, Usama Rabie, chairman of the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt, said that the damage caused by the blockage of the canal could reach about $1 billion. Rabie also revealed that after the Suez Canal resumed navigation, as of noon on 31 March 285 cargo ships had passed through the canal smoothly. He said that the remaining 175 freighters waiting to pass through the canal would all pass by 2 April.[129]
After the incident, the Egyptian government announced that they would be widening the narrower parts of the canal.[130] On 9 September 2021, the canal was briefly blocked again by MV Coral Crystal.[131] However, this ship was freed within 15 minutes, presenting minimal disruption to other convoys.
2023 Grounding
On 25 May 2023, a Hong Kong-flagged cargo ship, this time MV
Layout and operation
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Legend
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When built, the canal was 164 km (102 mi) long and 8 m (26 ft) deep. After several enlargements, it is 193.30 km (120+1⁄8 mi) long, 24 m (79 ft) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide.[134] It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100+7⁄8 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5+1⁄2 mi).[135]
The so-called
Capacity
The canal allows passage of ships up to 20 m (66 ft)
Ships approaching the canal from the sea are expected to radio the harbour when they are within 15 nautical miles (28 kilometres) of the
There is one shipping lane with passing areas in Ballah-Bypass near
By 1955, about two-thirds of Europe's oil passed through the canal. Around 8% of world sea trade is carried via the canal. In 2008, 21,415 vessels passed through the canal and the receipts totalled $5.381 billion,[138] with an average cost per ship of $251,000.
New Rules of Navigation came into force on 1 January 2008, passed by the board of directors of the Suez Canal Authority (SCA) to organise vessels' transit. The most important amendments include allowing vessels with 19-metre (62 ft) draught to pass, increasing the allowed breadth from 32 to 40 metres (105 to 131 ft) (following improvement operations), and imposing a fine on vessels using pilots from outside the SCA inside the canal boundaries without permission. The amendments allow vessels loaded with dangerous cargo (such as radioactive or flammable materials) to pass if they conform with the latest amendments provided by international conventions.
The SCA has the right to determine the number of tugs required to assist warships traversing the canal, to achieve the highest degree of safety during transit.[142]
-
Ships moored at El Ballah during transit
-
USS America (CV-66), an American aircraft carrier in the Suez Canal
-
Container ship Hanjin Kaohsiung transiting the Suez Canal
Operation
Before August 2015, the canal was too narrow for free two-way traffic, so ships had to pass in convoys and use bypasses. The bypasses were 78 km (48 mi) out of 193 km (120 mi) (40%). From north to south, they are Port Said bypass (entrances) 36.5 km (23 mi), Ballah bypass & anchorage 9 km (6 mi), Timsah bypass 5 km (3 mi), and the Deversoir bypass (northern end of the Great Bitter Lake) 27.5 kilometres (17 mi). The bypasses were completed in 1980.
Typically, it would take a ship 12 to 16 hours to transit the canal. The canal's 24-hour capacity was about 76 standard ships.[143]
In August 2014, Egypt chose a consortium that includes the Egyptian army and global engineering firm Dar Al-Handasah to develop an international industrial and logistics hub in the Suez Canal area,[144] and began the construction of a new canal section from 60 to 95 km (37 to 59 mi) combined with expansion and deep digging of the other 37 km (23 mi) of the canal.[145] This will allow navigation in both directions simultaneously in the 72-kilometre-long (45 mi) central section of the canal. These extensions were formally opened on 6 August 2015 by President Al-Sisi.[9][146][147]
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Northbound convoy waits in the Great Bitter Lake as southbound convoy passes, October 2014
Convoy sailing
Since the canal does not cater to unregulated two-way traffic, all ships transit in convoys on regular times, scheduled on a 24-hour basis. Each day, a single northbound convoy starts at 04:00 EET from Suez. At dual lane sections, the convoy uses the eastern route. Synchronised with this convoy's passage is the southbound convoy. It starts at 03:30 EET from Port Said and so passes the Northbound convoy in the two-lane section.[148][149]
Canal crossings
From north to south, the crossings are:
- The El Nasr pontoon bridge (31°13′43″N 32°18′15″E / 31.2285°N 32.3042°E), connecting Port Said to Port Fuad. Opened in 2016, 420 m (1,380 ft) length.[150]
- The Abanoub Gerges pontoon bridge (30°50′37″N 32°19′00″E / 30.8436°N 32.3168°E), 1.5 km (1 mi) north of the Suez Canal Bridge
- The
- El Ferdan Railway Bridge (30°39′25″N 32°20′02″E / 30.657°N 32.334°E) 20 km (12 mi) north of Ismailia (30°35′N 32°16′E / 30.583°N 32.267°E) was completed in 2001 and is the longest swing-span bridge in the world, with a span of 340 m (1100 ft). The previous bridge was destroyed in 1967 during the Arab-Israeli conflict. The current bridge is no longer functional due to the expansion of the Suez Canal, as the parallel shipping lane completed in 2015 just east of the bridge lacks a structure spanning it. However, plans surfaced in 2017 to build a new bridge spanning the parallel canal and converting the old single track railway on the Ferdan to a double track, which as of October 2023, were near completion.[152]
- The Ahmed el-Mansy pontoon bridge (30°36′19″N 32°19′31″E / 30.6054°N 32.3254°E), a pair of pontoons bridging both channels
- The Taha Zaki Abdullah pontoon bridge (30°28′22″N 32°21′01″E / 30.4729°N 32.3502°E), a pair of pontoons bridging both channels
- Pipelines taking fresh water under the canal to Sinai, about 57 km (35 mi) north of Suez, at 30°27.3′N 32°21.0′E / 30.4550°N 32.3500°E.
- Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel (30°5′9″N 32°34′32″E / 30.08583°N 32.57556°E) south of the Great Bitter Lake (30°20′N 32°23′E / 30.333°N 32.383°E) was built in 1983. Because of leakage problems, a new water-tight tunnel[153] was built inside the old one from 1992 to 1995.
- The Ahmed Omar Shabrawy pontoon bridge (30°02′43″N 32°34′28″E / 30.0453°N 32.5744°E)
- The Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing (29°59′46″N 32°34′59″E / 29.996°N 32.583°E) was built in 1999.
A railway on the west bank runs parallel to the canal for its entire length.
The five pontoon bridges were opened between 2016 and 2019.[154] They are designed to be movable, and can be completely rotated against the banks of the canal to allow shipping through, or else individual sections can be moved to create a narrower channel.
Six new tunnels for cars and trains are also planned across the canal.[155] Currently the Ahmed Hamdi is the only tunnel connecting Suez to the Sinai.
Economic impact
Economically, after its completion, the Suez Canal benefited primarily the sea trading powers of the
The time saved in the 19th century for an assumed steamship trip to Bombay from Brindisi and Trieste was 37 days, from Genoa 32, from Marseille 31, from Bordeaux, Liverpool, London, Amsterdam and Hamburg 24 days. At that time, it was also necessary to consider whether the goods to be transported could bear the costly canal tariff. This led to a rapid growth of Mediterranean ports with their land routes to
In the 20th century, trade through the Suez Canal came to a standstill several times, due to the two world wars and the Suez Canal crisis. Many trade flows were also shifted away from the Mediterranean ports towards Northern European terminals, such as Hamburg and Rotterdam. Only after the end of the Cold War, the growth in European economic integration, the consideration of CO2 emission and the Chinese Silk Road Initiative, are Mediterranean ports such as Piraeus and Trieste again at the focus of growth and investment.[159][162][163][164][165]
The Suez Canal set a new record with annual revenue of $9.4 billion in
Alternative routes
Before the canal's opening in 1869, goods were sometimes offloaded from ships and carried overland between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.[167]
Cape Agulhas
The main alternative is around
Northern Sea Route
In recent years, the shrinking Arctic sea ice has made the Northern Sea Route feasible for commercial cargo ships between Europe and East Asia during a six-to-eight-week window in the summer months, shortening the voyage by thousands of kilometres compared to that through the Suez Canal. According to polar climate researchers, as the extent of the Arctic summer ice pack recedes the route will become passable without the help of icebreakers for a greater period each summer.[171][172]
The
Cape Horn
Sailing ships, such as the windjammers in the heyday of the Great Grain Race between Australia and Europe during the 1930s, often preferred the Cape Horn route when going to Europe, due to prevalent wind directions, even though it is slightly longer from Sydney to Europe this way than past Cape Agulhas.
Negev desert railway
In February 2012, Israel announced its intention to construct a railway between the Mediterranean and Eilat through the Negev desert to compete with the canal.[174] By 2019, the project had been put on indefinite hold.[175]
Environmental impact
The opening of the canal created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Although the Red Sea is about 1.2 m (4 ft) higher than the eastern Mediterranean,
The Red Sea is generally saltier and less nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, so that Erythrean species will often do well in the 'milder' eastern Mediterranean environment. To the contrary very few Mediterranean species have been able to settle in the 'harsher' conditions of the Red Sea. The dominant, south to north, migratory passage across the canal is often called
Exotic species from the Indo-Pacific Ocean and introduced into the Mediterranean via the canal since the 1880s have become a significant component of the Mediterranean ecosystem. They already impact its ecology, endangering some local and endemic species. Since the piercing of the canal, over a thousand species from the Red Sea—plankton, seaweeds, invertebrates, fishes—have been recorded in the Mediterranean, and many others will clearly follow. The resulting change in biodiversity is without precedent in human memory and is accelerating: a long-term cross-Basin survey engaged by the Mediterranean Science Commission recently documented that in the first twenty years of this century more exotic fish species from the Indian Ocean had reached the Mediterranean than during the entire 20th century.[179]
Historically, the construction of the canal was preceded by cutting a small fresh-water canal called
Suez Canal Economic Zone
The Suez Canal Economic Zone, sometimes shortened to SCZONE, describes the set of locations neighbouring the canal where customs rates have been reduced to zero in order to attract investment. The zone comprises over 461 km2 (178 sq mi) within the governorates of Port Said, Ismailia and Suez. Projects in the zone are collectively described as the Suez Canal Area Development Project (SCADP).[181][182]
The plan focuses on development of East Port Said and the port of Ain Sokhna, and hopes to extend to four more ports at West Port Said, El-Adabiya, Arish and El Tor.[183]
The zone incorporates the four "Qualifying Industrial Zones" at Port Said, Ismailia and Suez, a 1996 American initiative to encourage economic ties between Israel and its neighbours.[184]
See also
- Canal des Deux Mers
- Container transport
- Corinth Canal
- Istanbul Canal
- Maritime Silk Road
- Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal
- New Imperialism
- New Suez Canal
- Panama Canal
- Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance
- Suezmax
- Yellow Fleet
Citations
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General and cited references and further reading
- Bogaars, George. "The Effect of the Opening of the Suez Canal on the Trade and Development of Singapore." Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 28.1 (1955): 99–143. online
- Bonin, Hubert. History of the Suez Canal Company 1858–2008 (Librairie Droz, 2010).
- Britannica (2007) "Suez Canal", in: The new Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., 28, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, ISBN 1-59339-292-3
- Bulfin, Ailise. "The Fiction of Gothic Egypt and British Imperial Paranoia: The Curse of the Suez Canal." English Literature in Transition, 1880–1920 54.4 (2011): 411–443. online[permanent dead link]
- Burchell, S.C. Getting to Know The Suez Canal (1971), for middle schools online
- Farnie, D.A. East and West of Suez: Suez Canal in History, 1854–1956 (1969), a standard scholarly history; 870 pp
- Fletcher, Max E. "The Suez Canal and world shipping, 1869–1914." Journal of Economic History 18.4 (1958): 556–573.
- Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). "A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea", in: Leppäkoski, E., Gollasch, S. and Olenin, S. (eds), Invasive aquatic species of Europe : distribution, impacts, and management, Dordrecht; Boston : Kluwer Academic, ISBN 1-4020-0837-6, pp. 325–336
- Garrison, Ervan G. (1999) A history of engineering and technology : artful methods, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, Fla.; London : CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-9810-X
- Hallberg, Charles W. The Suez Canal: Its History and Diplomatic Importance (1931), a standard scholarly history; 440 pp; online
- Huber, Valeska. "Connecting colonial seas: the 'international colonisation' of Port Said and the Suez Canal during and after the First World War." European Review of History: Revue europeenne d'histoire 19.1 (2012): 141–161. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13507486.2012.643612
- Karabell, Zachary (2003) Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal, Knopf, ISBN 978-0-375-40883-0 online
- Obieta, Joseph A. The international status of the Suez canal (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012).
- Pudney, John. Suez; De Lesseps' Canal (Praeger, 1969).
- Rathbone, William (1882). . London: Chapman and Hall, Limited.
- Sanford, Eva Matthews (1938) The Mediterranean world in ancient times, Ronald series in history, New York : The Ronald Press Company, 618 p.
- Wilson, Arnold T. (1939). The Suez Canal. Its Past, Present, and Future (2nd ed.). London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press.
- Wilson, Arnold. "The Suez Canal." International Affairs 18#3, (1939), pp. 380–95. online
Historiography and memory
- Carminati, Lucia. "Suez: A hollow canal in need of peopling. Currents and stoppages in the historiography, 1859–1956." History Compass 19.5 (2021): 1–14. online[permanent dead link]
- Curli, Barbara. "Italy and the Suez Canal: Historical and Historiographical Passages from a Euro-Mediterranean Perspective." in Italy and the Suez Canal, from the Mid-nineteenth Century to the Cold War: A Mediterranean History (Springer International Publishing, 2022) pp. 1–26.
- Oster, Uwe (2006) Le fabuleux destin des inventions : le canal de Suez, TV documentary produced by ZDF and directed by Axel Engstfeld (Germany)
- Searight, S. "A dismal but Profitable Ditch: The Suez Canal Then and now" Asian Affairs, (2016) 47, 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2015.1129870 online]
External links
- Suez Canal Authority
- Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions
- Suez Canal on OpenStreetMap
- Encyclopedia of the Orient: Suez Canal Archived 25 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- Entrance of the Suez Canal – 1882
- Suez Canal Container Terminal at Port Said
- Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library
- 3min video of sailing the 163km on YouTube, including the new section
- American Society of Civil Engineers – Suez Canal
- Suez Canal map by Strommer, 19th century. Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel. Historic Cities Research Project. Archived 25 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- Images of container ship Ever Given aground in Suez Canal BBC News
- Explained: The Whole Scenario Of Suez Canal. How Would It Have Impacted The Trade If It Persisted Longer? Archived 16 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Inventiva