Suillellus luridus

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Suillellus luridus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Boletaceae
Genus: Suillellus
Species:
S. luridus
Binomial name
Suillellus luridus
(
Murrill
(1909)
Synonyms[1][2]
  • Boletus luridus Schaeff. (1774)
  • Boletus rubeolarius Bull. (1791)
  • Boletus subvescus J.F.Gmel. (1792)
  • Leccinum luridum (Schaeff.) Gray (1821)
  • Tubiporus luridus (Schaeff.)
    P.Karst.
    (1881)
  • Dictyopus luridus (Schaeff.) Quél. (1888)
Suillellus luridus
mycorrhizal
Edibility is edible but not recommended

Suillellus luridus (formerly Boletus luridus), commonly known as the lurid bolete, is a fungus of the family Boletaceae, found in calcareous broadleaved woodlands in Europe. Fruit bodies appear in summer and autumn and may be locally abundant. It is a firm bolete with an olive-brown cap up to 20 cm (8 in) in diameter, with small orange or red pores on the underside (yellow when young). The stout ochre stem reaches 8–14 cm (3–6 in) high and 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) wide, and is patterned with a red network. Like several other red-pored boletes, it stains blue when bruised or cut.

While

Boletus satanas; as a result, some guidebooks recommend avoiding consumption altogether. When consumed with alcohol, Suillellus luridus has been implicated in causing adverse reactions similar to those caused by the compound coprine
, though laboratory testing has not revealed any evidence of coprine in the mushroom.

First described in 1774, the species has been transferred to various Boletaceae genera in its

feeding on them. Chemical analyses have revealed some aspects of the mushroom's components, including its volatile flavour compounds, its fatty acid and amino acid compositions, and the identities of the carotenoid
compounds responsible for its colour.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Boletus luridus was

Petter Karsten in 1881,[11] Dictyopus by Lucien Quélet in 1888,[12] and Suillellus by William Murrill in 1909.[1][13]

1897 illustration by Albin Schmalfuß

The

Hainan Province, China, was later elevated to species status and transferred to another genus with the name Neoboletus sinensis.[26]

Boletus luridus was the

Boletus dupainii), quite distant from the core group of Boletus edulis and its relatives.[31] However, more refined analyses based on a larger number of sequences, have since demonstrated that B. luridus and its allied species form a distinct generic clade,[32] and since 2014 the fungus has been placed in genus Suillellus.[33]

Common names

The English

Boletus satanas are known as ayimantari (meaning "bear mushroom"), in Eastern Turkey.[35]

Description

Closeup of the pore surface. Note the yellow region around the margin and the blue discolouration where the cap has been handled.
The stem has orange-red reticulation over a yellowish background and bruises blue.

Suillellus luridus is a stout fungus with a thick yellow-olive to olive-brown convex cushion-shaped

maroon layer between the tubes and the flesh (known as Bataille’s line),[42] but this is not always present and subhymenial flesh can occasionally be yellow or straw-coloured.[25] The stem is 8–14 cm (3–6 in) tall and 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) wide, and bears a distinctive, elongated (or "stretched") orange-red reticulum (network) pattern on a paler yellowish, orange, or ochre background, often becoming darker and vinaceous towards the base.[43][41] The flesh is yellowish, sometimes with red patches in the cap but almost always rhubarb to vinaceous-red towards the stem base, and stains an intense dark blue when bruised or cut. There is a faint sour smell, and the taste is described as mild.[36][38] The mycelium is an unusual yellow colour.[44]

Variety queletiformis can be distinguished from the main form by the reddish discolouration of the stem base that occurs both on the exterior surface and in the flesh.[45] Variety rubriceps has a deep crimson red cap, while var. lupiniformis has a pale yellow or dirty ochre cap and pores, sometimes with pink tones throughout.[37]

Spores

The

cap cuticle is made of cylindrical hyphae 3.7–5.8 μm wide that are interwoven compactly, and the hyphal tips are erect and arranged in bundles. In contrast, the hyphae of the cap flesh is loosely interwoven with hyphae that are cylindrical and branched, measuring 3.7–8.8 μm. Hyphae do not contain clamp connections.[46]

Some

ferrous sulfate solution turns the cuticle yellow and then greenish-yellow.[47] Melzer's reagent will turn the flesh dark blue, after the natural bluing reaction to injury has faded.[39]

Similar species

Boletus caucasicus on the basis of a yellow subhymenial layer (the flesh in the cap tissue immediately above the tube layer known as Bataille’s line),[49] have been shown to phylogenetically correspond to either S. luridus or S. mendax.[48] As shown by Vizzini and colleagues,[25] the name Boletus caucasicus has been invalidly published (nomen nudum) and the Bataille's line is not reliable for discriminating between species in the Luridi complex, as it can be randomly present or absent in both S. luridus and S. mendax
.

Another similar species is

cap cuticle are more loose and prostrate, running more or less parallel to the cap.[40][25] Also in the same genus, Suillellus queletii
shares with S. luridus a vinaceous stem base and strongly bluing flesh, but completely lacks reticulation on the stem.

The edible Neoboletus luridiformis can be distinguished from S. luridus by its dark brown cap and absence of any reticulation on the stem; it also grows on sandy soils associated with conifers.[36] In genus Rubroboletus, R. satanas is also found on chalky soils, but produces larger and more robust fruit bodies with a pale cap and differently patterned reticulation to S. luridus.[36][40] Its flesh does not turn blue so intensely on bruising or cutting, while overripe mushrooms often carry a smell of decay.[51] Another red-pored species in this genus, Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus, has characteristic pinkish tones in the cap and a very dense, differently patterned reticulation. When longitudinally cut, its flesh is bright yellow in the stem and stains blue only in the cap.[42][41]

A number of extra-European

Suillellus hypocarycinus (found in North America) and Boletus subvelutipes (reported from North America and Asia and of yet unclear phylogenetic placement), can be somewhat similar, but lack reticulation on the stem.[39] Initially collected in Michigan under oak, Boletus vinaceobasis resembles S. luridus, but has shorter spores and its cystidia are dark brown in Melzer's reagent.[52] This species' phylogenetic position also remains unresolved. Also in North America, Rubroboletus pulcherrimus can be somewhat similar, but has a more robust stem and deeper red pores.[53] The Chinese species Neoboletus sinensis, originally described as a form of S. luridus but now placed in a different genus, has considerably larger spores, reported to reach 12–17 by 5.5–7 μm.[26] Collections closely resembling S. luridus have also been recorded in Australia, though later renamed Boletus barragensis as they differ in spore size and a preference for trees of the family Myrtaceae.[54][55]

Ecology and distribution

The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with broad-leaved trees such as oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), chestnut (Castanea) and beech (Fagus), on chalky (calcareous) soils.[36][25][48] In the Czech Republic, the variety rubriceps has been reported growing under linden (Tilia).[56] It is also suspected of being a mycorrhizal associate of subshrub rock roses in the genus Helianthemum.[57]

Field studies indicate that the fungus, when paired as a mycorrhizal partner with seedlings of the conifer Cunninghamia lanceolata, increases the seedling's survival rate, augments its height and ground diameter, and increases the chlorophyll content in the leaves.[58] A similar growth-enhancing effect had been noted earlier with Pinus taiwanensis seedlings.[59] These beneficial effects on plant growth are a result of multiple interactions among the fungus, host plant, and indigenous soil microbes that increase the biomass of carbon, and increase the bacterial diversity in the mycorrhizosphere.[60] In a study comparing the salinity resistance of three common ectomycorrhizal fungi (the others were Suillus bovinus and S. luteus), S. luridus was the most tolerant to high concentrations of salt, and is a good candidate species for the inoculation of tree seedlings to be planted on saline soil.[61] Fruit bodies grow singly or scattered on the ground,[39] from June to November after summer rains. S. luridus may occur in parks near a single tree, though it is very rarely found in acidic soils.[36]

A collection from Austria

The predilection of insects for this mushroom was noted by 19th-century British mycologist

feeding on the fruit bodies, including Phaonia boleticola, P. rufipalpis, Thricops diaphanus,[63] and, in North America, Drosophila falleni, Pegomya mallochi, P. winthemi, Megaselia pygmaeoides, and Muscina assimilis.[64] In contrast, slugs tend to avoid consuming this species.[65]

Based on

mycelial distribution, the fungus appears to be native to Europe and has been so far documented in Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, France, Italy, Montenegro and Sweden.[66][67][68][69][25][48] Its distribution may extend east to the Black Sea and eastern Anatolia regions of Turkey,[35][70] and south to the Bar'am Forest in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel,[71]
although these reports are in need of molecular verification.

A number of extra-European reports can be found in literature predating DNA studies, ranging from India[72] and Pakistan,[73] to Canada,[46] the United States,[74] Mexico,[75][76] Costa Rica,[77] China[78] and Taiwan,[59] but these have not been confirmed by molecular testing and are more likely to represent similar, misidentified taxa.[32][79]

Toxicity/edibility

Mild tasting, Suillellus luridus is often reported as edible after thorough cooking. It is highly regarded in France,[36][51] while it is commonly consumed in Italy, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia as well as other parts of Europe.[80] However, caution is advised if choosing this species for consumption, as it resembles some poisonous blue-staining boletes and some guidebooks recommend avoiding it altogether.[4] If eaten raw or insufficiently cooked, symptoms of gastrointestinal poisoning can occur within 30 minutes to two hours, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea. A full recovery can be expected within 24 to 48 hours if fluid losses are restored.[81]

Suillellus luridus has been suspected of causing an enhanced alcohol sensitivity similar to that caused by the common ink cap (

antabuse-like compound coprine content in S. luridus and similar species, and found none in the historical suspect but did find indications for it in the rare Imperator torosus. They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical incidents was a misidentification of B. torosus with S. luridus, though they could not rule out S. luridus containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol-related reactions.[84]

Chemistry

Several carotenoids are responsible for the various colours of the cap, tubes, and stem, while variegatic and xerocomic acid cause the bluing reaction that occurs with tissue injury.

The composition of the

heptadecanoic acid. Pyrazine compounds might be responsible for the characteristic odour of the dried mushroom.[85] The predominant sterol present in the fruit bodies is ergosterol, with smaller amounts of closely related derivative compounds.[86] The main fatty acids of the mushroom include linoleic acid (53.4% of total fatty acids), oleic acid (24.1%), and palmitic acid (10.2%). Arginine is the free amino acid found in the highest concentration (96.9 μM per gram of dry weight), followed by glutamine (9.7) and alanine (8.2).[87]

The

β-zeacarotene (18.5%), and rhodopin (11.4%).[88] The colour change observed with tissue injury is caused by variegatic and xerocomic acids, both of which turn blue when oxidized enzymatically upon exposure to air.[89]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "GSD Species Synonymy: Suillellus luridus (Schaeff.) Murrill". Species Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2014-11-24.
  2. ^ "Boletus luridus Schaeff., Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones, 4: 78, t. 107, 1774". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
  3. ^ Schaeffer JC. (1774). Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones (in Latin and German). Vol. 4. Erlangen: Apud J.J. Palmium. p. 78; plate 107.
  4. ^
    ISBN 0-14-063005-8
    .
  5. ^ Bulliard JBF. (1791). Herbier de la France (in French). Vol. 11. Paris: Chez l'auteur, Didot, Debure, Belin. plate 490.1.
  6. ^ Gmelin JF. (1792). Systema Naturae (in Latin). Vol. 2 (13th ed.). Leipzig: G.E. Beer. p. 1434.
  7. ISBN 0-304-52257-0
    .
  8. ISBN 0-14-063006-6
    .
  9. ^ "Boletus subvescus J.F. Gmel., Systema Naturae, 2: 1434, 1792". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-03-20.
  10. ^ Gray SF. (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 1. London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy. p. 648.
  11. ^ Karsten PA. (1881). "Enumeratio Boletinearum et Polyporearum Fennicarum, systemate novo dispositarum". Revue Mycologique Toulouse (in Latin). 3: 16–23.
  12. ^ Quélet L. (1886). Enchiridion Fungorum in Europa media et praesertim in Gallia Vigentium (in Latin). Lutetia: Octave Dion. p. 160.
  13. JSTOR 3753167
    .
  14. ^ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Lund: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 391.
  15. ^ "Boletus erythropus Pers., Annalen der Botanik (Usteri), 15: 23, 1795". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-04-17.
  16. ^ Marie R. (1937). "Fungi Catalaunici: Series altera. Contributions a l'étude de la flore mycologique de la Catalogne". Publicacions del Instituto Botánico Barcelona (in French). 3 (1): 1–128 (see p. 45).
  17. ISBN 978-3-443-69002-1
    .
  18. ^ Michael E, Schulz R (1924). Führer für Pilzfreunde: Systematisch geordnet und gänzlich neu bearbeitet von Roman Schulz (in German). Vol. 1 (5th ed.). Zwickau: Förster & Borries. plate 92.
  19. ^ Velenovský J. (1939). Novitates mycologicae (in Latin). Prague: L. Souc̆ek. p. 158.
  20. ISSN 0019-3895
    .
  21. ISBN 978-3-7682-0416-3
    .
  22. ^ Hlavácek J. (1995). "Průzkum naší boletales, 29" [A survey of our Boletales, 29]. Mykologický Sborník (in Czech). 72 (3): 83–90.
  23. ^ Lavorato C, Simonini G (1997). "Boletus flavosanguineus sp. nov" (MS word document). Rivista di Micologia (in Italian). 40 (1): 37–51.
  24. ^ "Synonymy: Boletus caucasicus Singer ex Alessio, Boletus Dill. ex L. (Saronno): 175 (1985)". Species Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2013-03-20.
  25. ^
    S2CID 14628017
    .
  26. ^
    ISSN 1672-6472
    .
  27. ^ Fries EM. (1838). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum (in Latin). Uppsala: Typographia Academica. p. 417.
  28. ISBN 978-0-85486-016-6
    .
  29. ^ Binder M, Hibbett DS (2004). "Part 2: Figure 1C of the Proposed Research". Toward a Global Phylogeny of the Boletales. Clark University. Archived from the original on 2013-09-25. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
  30. PMID 16213623
    .
  31. PMID 23931115
    .
  32. ^
    S2CID 15652037
    .
  33. ISSN 2049-2375
    .
  34. ^ Holden EM. (2003). "Recommended English Names for Fungi in the UK" (PDF). British Mycological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-02.
  35. ^ a b Demirel K, Uzun Y, Kaya A (2004). "Some poisonous fungi of East Anatolia" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Botany. 28 (1/2): 215–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-05-05.
  36. ^
    ISBN 0-222-79409-7
    .
  37. ^ a b c d Alessio CL. (1985). Boletus Dill. ex L. (sensu lato) (in Italian). Saronno: Biella Giovanna. pp. 169–74.
  38. ^
    ISBN 0-584-10324-7
    .
  39. ^
    ISBN 0-8156-0588-9
    .
  40. ^
    ISBN 978-88-901057-6-0
    .
  41. ^ a b c Galli R. (2007). I Boleti. Atlante pratico-monographico per la determinazione dei boleti (in Italian) (3rd ed.). Milano, Italy: Dalla Natura.
  42. ^
    ISBN 1-84537-474-6
    .
  43. ^
    ISBN 0-330-44237-6
    .
  44. ISBN 1-870630-09-2
    .
  45. ^ Siquier JL, Salom JC (2008). "Contribució al coneixement micologic de les Illes Balears. XVI" (PDF). Revista Catalana de Micologia (in Catalan). 30: 13–25 (see p. 15).
  46. ^
    ISBN 0-8166-1407-5
    .
  47. ISBN 978-0-442-21998-7
    .
  48. ^
    S2CID 181958289
    .
  49. doi:10.1016/j.fldmyc.2011.06.004
    .
  50. ^ Simonini G. (1992). "Boletus comptus sp. nov". Rivista di Micologia. 35 (3): 195–208.
  51. ^
    ISBN 3-8331-1239-5
    .
  52. ISBN 0-472-85590-5
    .
  53. ISBN 0-89815-169-4
    .
  54. ISBN 1-872291-28-7
    .
  55. ISBN 978-0-7308-0737-7
    .
  56. ISSN 0374-9436
    .
  57. doi:10.1016/S1468-1641(10)60384-2
    .
  58. ISSN 1000-4025
    .
  59. ^
    ISSN 0250-1651
    .
  60. doi:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2009.10.005
    .
  61. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.12.007
    .
  62. ^ Hussey AM. (1847). Illustrations of British Mycology, Containing the Figures and Description of Funguses of Interest and Novelty Indigenous to Britain. Vol. ser. 1. London: Reeve, Brothers, King William Street, Strand. Description of plate XXIII.
  63. ISBN 978-90-6193-139-3
    .
  64. ISBN 0-231-05694-X
    .
  65. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(22)80011-5
    .
  66. ^ Iotti M, Barbieri E, Stocchi V, Zambonelli A (2005). "Morphological and molecular characterisation of mycelia of ectomycorrhizal fungi in pure culture". Fungal Diversity. 19: 1–68.
  67. S2CID 195073410
    .
  68. PMID 18692376
    .
  69. PMID 23638077
    .
  70. ^ Sesli E. (2007). "Preliminary checklist of macromycetes of the East and Middle Black Sea Regions of Turkey" (PDF). Mycotaxon. 99: 71–74.
  71. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(72)80037-8
    .
  72. ^ Kumar S, Sharma YP (2011). "Additions to boletes from Jammu and Kashmir". Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology. 41 (4): 579–83.
  73. ^ Sarwar S, Khalid AN (2013). "Preliminary Checklist of Boletales in Pakistan" (PDF). Mycotaxon: 1–12.
  74. ISSN 0096-9214
    .
  75. ^ Montoya A, Kong A, Estrada-Torres A, Cifuentes J, Caballero J (2004). "Useful wild fungi of La Malinche National Park, Mexico" (PDF). Fungal Diversity. 17: 115–43.
  76. S2CID 11350083
    .
  77. ^ Halling RE, Mueller GM (2008). "Boletus luridus". New York Botanic Garden: Macrofungi of Costa Rica. New York Botanic Garden. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
  78. ISBN 962-201-556-5
    .
  79. S2CID 22506275
    .
  80. S2CID 19585416
    .
  81. ISBN 978-90-481-9805-4
    .
  82. PMID 4059739
    .
  83. ISBN 0-7167-2649-1
    .
  84. ^ Kiwitt U, Laatsch H (1994). "Coprin in Boletus torosus: Beruht die angebliche Alkoholunverträglichkeit durch den Verzehr des Netzstieligen Hexenröhrlings (Boletus luridus) auf einer Verwechslung?" [Coprine in Boletus torosus: Is the alleged alcohol hypersensitivity by ingestion of B. luridus caused by a mistake?] (PDF). Zeitschrift für Mykologie (in German). 60 (2): 423–30.
  85. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1671-9964.2009.03.022
    .
  86. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)98504-2
    .
  87. ISSN 1307-6167
    .
  88. doi:10.1007/BF01092999
    .
  89. ^ Nelson SF. (2010). "Bluing components and other pigments of Boletes" (PDF). Fungi. 3 (4): 11–14.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suillellus_luridus&oldid=1194668728"