Mustard gas
Names | |
---|---|
Preferred IUPAC name
1-Chloro-2-[(2-chloroethyl)sulfanyl]ethane | |
Other names
Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide
HD Iprit Schwefel-LOST Lost Sulfur mustard Senfgas Yellow cross liquid Yperite Distilled mustard Mustard T- mixture 1,1'-thiobis[2-chloroethane] Dichlorodiethyl sulfide | |
Identifiers | |
3D model (
JSmol ) |
|
1733595 | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
ECHA InfoCard
|
100.209.973 |
EC Number |
|
324535 | |
KEGG | |
PubChem CID
|
|
UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
|
|
| |
| |
Properties | |
C4H8Cl2S | |
Molar mass | 159.07 g·mol−1 |
Appearance | Colorless if pure. Normally ranges from pale yellow to dark brown. Slight garlic or horseradish type odor.[1] |
Density | 1.27 g/mL, liquid |
Melting point | 14.45 °C (58.01 °F; 287.60 K) |
Boiling point | 217 °C (423 °F; 490 K) begins to decompose at 217 °C (423 °F) and boils at 218 °C (424 °F) |
7.6 mg/L at 20°C[2] | |
Solubility | Alcohols, ethers, hydrocarbons, lipids, THF |
Hazards | |
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): | |
Main hazards
|
Flammable, toxic, vesicant, carcinogenic, mutagenic |
GHS labelling:[3] | |
Danger | |
H300, H310, H315, H319, H330, H335 | |
P260, P261, P262, P264, P270, P271, P280, P284, P301+P310, P302+P350, P302+P352, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P310, P312, P320, P321, P322, P330, P332+P313, P337+P313, P361, P362, P363, P403+P233, P405, P501 | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |
Flash point | 105 °C (221 °F; 378 K) |
Safety data sheet (SDS) | External MSDS |
Related compounds | |
Related compounds
|
Nitrogen mustard, Bis(chloroethyl) ether, Chloromethyl methyl sulfide |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
|
Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is any of the several
History as chemical weapons
Sulfur mustard is a type of chemical warfare agent. As a chemical weapon, mustard gas was first used in
Mechanism of cellular toxicity
Sulfur mustards readily eliminate chloride ions by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form cyclic sulfonium ions. These very reactive intermediates tend to permanently alkylate nucleotides in DNA strands, which can prevent cellular division, leading to programmed cell death.[2] Alternatively, if cell death is not immediate, the damaged DNA can lead to the development of cancer.[2] Oxidative stress would be another pathology involved in mustard gas toxicity.
In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BC2H4X, where X is any
Physiological effects
Mustard gases react with DNA, which interferes with cellular division and can lead to mutations.[2]
Mustard gases are extremely toxic and have powerful
Mustard gases' carcinogenic and mutagenic effects mean that victims, even if they fully recover, have an increased risk of developing cancer later in life. In a study of patients 25 years after wartime exposure to chemical weaponry, c-DNA microarray profiling indicated that 122 genes were significantly mutated in the lungs and airways of mustard gas victims. Those genes all correspond to functions commonly affected by mustard gas exposure, including apoptosis, inflammation, and stress responses.[16] The long-term ocular complications include burning, tearing, itching, photophobia, presbyopia, pain, and foreign-body sensations.[17][18]
Mustard gases' blistering effects can be neutralized by
A British nurse treating soldiers with mustard agent burns during World War I commented:[20]
They cannot be bandaged or touched. We cover them with a tent of propped-up sheets. Gas burns must be agonizing because usually the other cases do not complain, even with the worst wounds, but gas cases are invariably beyond endurance and they cannot help crying out.
Formulations
In its history, various types and mixtures of mustard gas have been employed. These include:
- H – Also known as HS ("Hun Stuff") or Levinstein mustard. This is named after the inventor of the "quick but dirty" Levinstein Process for manufacture,[21][22] reacting dry ethylene with disulfur dichloride under controlled conditions. Undistilled mustard gas contains 20–30% impurities, which means it does not store as well as HD. Also, as it decomposes, it increases in vapor pressure, making the munition it is contained in likely to split, especially along a seam, releasing the agent to the atmosphere.[1]
- HD – Codenamed Pyro by the British, and Distilled Mustard by the US.[1] Distilled mustard of 95% or higher purity. The term "mustard gas" usually refers to this variety of mustard.
- HT – Codenamed Runcol by the British, and Mustard T- mixture by the US.freezing point, lower volatilityand similar vesicant characteristics.
- HL – A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and lewisite (L), originally intended for use in winter conditions due to its lower freezing point compared to the pure substances. The lewisite component of HL was used as a form of antifreeze.[23]
- HQ – A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and sesquimustard (Q) (Gates and Moore 1946).
- Yellow Cross – any of several blends containing sulfur mustard and sometimes arsine agents, along with solvents and other additives.
Commonly-stockpiled mustard agents (class)
Chemical | Code | Trivial name | CAS number | PubChem | Structure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide
|
H, HD | Mustard | 505-60-2 | CID 10461 from PubChem | |
1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) ethane | Q | Sesquimustard | 3563-36-8 | CID 19092 from PubChem | |
2-Chloroethyl ethyl sulfide | Half mustard | 693-07-2 | CID 12733 from PubChem | ||
Bis(2-(2-chloroethylsulfanyl)ethyl) ether | T | O-Mustard | 63918-89-8 | CID 45452 from PubChem | |
2-Chloroethyl chloromethyl sulfide | 2625-76-5 | ||||
Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) methane | HK | 63869-13-6 | |||
1,3-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) propane | 63905-10-2 | ||||
1,4-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) butane | 142868-93-7 | ||||
1,5-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) pentane | 142868-94-8 | ||||
Bis((2-chloroethylsulfanyl)methyl) ether | 63918-90-1 |
History
Development
Mustard gases were possibly developed as early as 1822 by
Mustard gas can have the effect of turning a patient's skin different colors, including shades of red, orange, pink, and in unusual cases, blue. The
Use
Mustard gas was first
Mustard gas was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and
Mustard gas was dispersed as an
Mustard gas can remain in the ground for weeks, and it continues to cause ill effects. If mustard agent contaminates one's clothing and equipment while cold, then other people with whom they share an enclosed space could become poisoned as contaminated items warm up enough material to become an airborne toxic agent. An example of this was depicted in a British and Canadian documentary about life in the trenches, particularly once the "sousterrain" (subways and berthing areas underground) were completed in Belgium and France. Towards the end of World War I, mustard agent was used in high concentrations as an
Since World War I, mustard gas has been used in several wars and other conflicts, usually against people who cannot retaliate in kind:[32]
- United Kingdom against the Red Army in 1919[33]
- Alleged British use in Mesopotamia in 1920[34]
- Morocco during the Rif War of 1921–27 (see also: Spanish use of chemical weapons in the Rif War)[32][35]
- Italy in Libya in 1930[32]
- The
- Italy against 1935-1936[32]
- The
- The US military conducted experiments with chemical weapons like lewisite and mustard gas on Japanese American, Puerto Rican and African Americans in the US military in World War II to see how non-white races would react to being mustard gassed, with Rollin Edwards describing it as "It felt like you were on fire, Guys started screaming and hollering and trying to break out. And then some of the guys fainted. And finally they opened the door and let us out, and the guys were just, they were in bad shape." and "It took all the skin off your hands. Your hands just rotted".[36]
- After WWII, stockpiled mustard gas was dumped by the British in the sea near Port Elizabeth, South Africa, resulting in many cases of burns among trawler crews[37]
- The United States Government tested effectiveness on US Naval recruits in a laboratory setting at The Great Lakes Naval Base, June 3, 1945[38]
- The 2 December 1943 air raid on Bari destroyed an Allied stockpile of mustard gas on the SS John Harvey,[39] killing 83 and hospitalizing 628.[40]
- Egypt against North Yemen in 1963–1967[32]
- Iraq against
- Iraq against Iranians in 1983–1988[42]
- Possibly in Sudan against insurgents in the civil war, in 1995 and 1997.[32]
- In the roadside bombs.[44]
- By
- By ISIS against another rebel group in the town of Mare' in 2015.[46]
- According to Syrian state media, by ISIS against the Syrian Army during the battle in Deir ez-Zor in 2016.[47]
The use of toxic gases or other chemicals, including mustard gas, during warfare is known as chemical warfare, and this kind of warfare was prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925, and also by the later Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. The latter agreement also prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and sale of such weapons.
In September 2012, a US official stated that the rebel militant group
Development of the first chemotherapy drug
As early as 1919 it was known that mustard agent was a suppressor of
As a part of this effort, the group investigated
Disposal
This section needs to be updated.(February 2022) |
In the United States, storage and incineration of mustard gas and other chemical weapons were carried out by the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency.
New detection techniques are being developed in order to detect the presence of mustard gas and its metabolites. The technology is portable and detects small quantities of the hazardous waste and its oxidized products, which are notorious for harming unsuspecting civilians. The
In 1946, 10,000 drums of mustard gas (2,800 tonnes) stored at the production facility of Stormont Chemicals in Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, were loaded onto 187 boxcars for the 900 miles (1,400 km) journey to be buried at sea on board a 400 foot (120 m) long barge 40 miles (64 km) south of Sable Island, southeast of Halifax, at a depth of 600 fathoms (1,100 m). The dump location is 42 degrees, 50 minutes north by 60 degrees, 12 minutes west.[55]
A large British stockpile of old mustard agent that had been made and stored since World War I at M. S. Factory, Valley near Rhydymwyn in Flintshire, Wales, was destroyed in 1958.[56]
Most of the mustard gas found in Germany after
In 1972, the
In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons of 1,044 tonnes (1,151 short tons) of mustard gas.[58][59] By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted extension for destroying the remaining stocks by April 2009 and was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame.[58] India informed the United Nations in May 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention. With this India has become the third country after South Korea and Albania to do so.[60][61] This was cross-checked by inspectors of the United Nations.
Producing or stockpiling mustard gas is prohibited by the Chemical Weapons Convention. When the convention entered force in 1997, the parties declared worldwide stockpiles of 17,440 tonnes of mustard gas. As of December 2015, 86% of these stockpiles had been destroyed.[62]
A significant portion of the United States' mustard agent
In 2008, many empty
In 2014, a collection of 200 bombs was found near the Flemish villages of Passendale and Moorslede. The majority of the bombs were filled with mustard agents. The bombs were left over from the German army and were meant to be used in the Battle of Passchendaele in World War I. It was the largest collection of chemical weapons ever found in Belgium.[68]
A large amount of chemical weapons, including mustard gas, was found in a neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The cleanup was completed in 2021.[69]
Post-war accidental exposure
In 2002, an archaeologist at the Presidio Trust archaeology lab in San Francisco was exposed to mustard gas, which had been dug up at the Presidio of San Francisco, a former military base.[70]
In 2010, a clamming boat pulled up some old
WWII-era tests on men
From 1943 to 1944, mustard agent experiments were performed on Australian service volunteers in tropical
The United States tested sulfur mustards and other chemical agents including
Detection in biological fluids
Concentrations of thiodiglycol in urine have been used to confirm a diagnosis of chemical poisoning in hospitalized victims. The presence in urine of 1,1'-sulfonylbismethylthioethane (SBMTE), a conjugation product with glutathione, is considered a more specific marker, since this metabolite is not found in specimens from unexposed persons. In one case, intact mustard gas was detected in postmortem fluids and tissues of a man who died one week post-exposure.[76]
See also
- Bis(chloromethyl) ether
- Chlorine gas
- Keen as Mustard
- Phosgene oxime
- Poison gas in World War I
- Rawalpindi experiments
- Selenium mustard
References
Notes
- ^ a b c d e FM 3–8 Chemical Reference handbook, US Army, 1967
- ^ a b c d e Mustard agents: description, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of action, symptoms, antidotes and methods of treatment. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Accessed June 8, 2010.
- ^ "Pubchem".
- ^ a b "Mustard Gas" (PDF). ChemMatters. American Chemical Society.
- ^ "What is a Chemical Weapon?". OPCW. Retrieved 2023-09-15.
- PMID 33083286.
- PMID 1486858.
- PMID 28246228.
- S2CID 207899509.
- S2CID 204967476.
- S2CID 204799405.
- S2CID 201831881.
- PMID 11197102.
- ^ Vesicants. brooksidepress.org
- ^ Effects of mustard gas, WW1|Gas Warfare Medical Aspects|World War II Resource Centre. Vlib.us (2004-08-23). Retrieved on 2011-05-29.
- S2CID 41665583.
- S2CID 207899509.
- S2CID 207263000.
- PMID 8975783.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-5853-5.
- ISBN 0-7637-2425-4.
- ^ "Chemical Weapons Production and Storage". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on August 11, 2014.
- ^ The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: Mustard-Lewisite Mixture (HL). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Accessed March 19, 2009.
- ^ By Any Other Name: Origins of Mustard Gas Archived 2014-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. Itech.dickinson.edu (2008-04-25). Retrieved on 2011-05-29.
- .
- .
- ^ Fries, Amos A. (Amos Alfred); West, Clarence J. (Clarence Jay) (1921). Chemical warfare. University of California Libraries. New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc. p. 176.
(...) on the night of July 12, 1917 (...)
- ^ Fries, Amos A. (Amos Alfred); West, Clarence J. (Clarence Jay) (1921). Chemical warfare. University of California Libraries. New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc. p. 150.
(...) 'Ypres,' a name used by the French, because the compound was first used at Ypres (...)
- ^ David Large (ed.). The Port of Bristol, 1848-1884.
- ^ "Photographic Archive of Avonmouth Bristol BS11". BristolPast.co.uk. Archived from the original on July 3, 2011. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
- ^ Fischer, Karin (June 2004). Schattkowsky, Martina (ed.). Steinkopf, Georg Wilhelm, in: Sächsische Biografie (in German) (Online ed.). Institut für Sächsische Geschichte und Volkskunde. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
- ^ a b c d e f Blister Agent: Mustard gas (H, HD, HS) Archived July 24, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, CBWinfo.com
- ^ a b c d Pearson, Graham S. "Uses of CW since the First World War". Federation of American Scientitst. Archived from the original on August 22, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ISBN 978-0-241-11789-7.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-926655-7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2007-07-11.
- ^ Dickerson, Caitlin (22 June 2015). "Secret World War II Chemical Experiments Tested Troops By Race". NPR.
- ^ "NEWSLETTER - JUNE 1992 NEWSLETTER - Johannesburg - South African Military History Society - Title page". Samilitaryhistory.org. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
- ^ "The Tox Lab: When U Chicago Was in the Chemical Weapons "Business" | Newcity". 2013-09-23. Retrieved 2021-07-02.
- ISBN 978-0-230-50183-6.
- ^ ISBN 1-4020-3618-3.
- ^ Lyon, Alistair (2008-07-09). "Iran's Chemical Ali survivors still bear scars". Reuters. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
- PMID 9248939.
- ^ "More Than 600 Reported Chemical Exposure in Iraq, Pentagon Acknowledges". The New York Times. 6 Nov 2014.
- ^ "Veterans Hurt by Chemical Weapons in Iraq Get Apology". The New York Times. 25 Mar 2015.
- ^ Deutsch, Anthony (15 February 2016). "Samples confirm Islamic State used mustard gas in Iraq - diplomat". Reuters. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
- ^ Deutsch, Anthony (2015-11-06). "Chemical weapons used by fighters in Syria—sources". Reuters. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
- ^ "Syria war: IS 'used mustard gas' on Assad troops". BBC News. 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
- ^ Paul Blake (11 September 2015). "US official: 'IS making and using chemical weapons in Iraq and Syria'". BBC. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
- ^ Lizzie Dearden (11 September 2015). "Isis 'manufacturing and using chemical weapons' in Iraq and Syria, US official claims". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
- .
- ^ PMID 13947966.
- S2CID 256367068.
- ^ The U.S. Army's Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) Archived October 15, 2004, at the Wayback Machine. cma.army.mil. Retrieved on November 11, 2011.
- PMID 25121638.
- ^ "Hill 70 & Cornwall's Deadly Mustard Gas Plant". Cornwall Community Museum. Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Historical Society. 18 September 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
- ^ "Valley Factory, Rhydymwyn". 24 July 2010.
- ^ Bull, John (30 October 2005). "The Deadliness Below". Daily Press Virginia. Archived from the original on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
- ^ a b "India to destroy chemical weapons stockpile by 2009". Dominican Today. Archived from the original on 7 September 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
- ^ Amy Smithson; Frank Gaffney Jr. "India declares its stock of chemical weapons". Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
- ^ "Zee News – India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile". Zeenews.india.com. 14 May 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
- ^ "India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile - Yahoo! India News". Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
- ^ Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (30 November 2016). "Annex 3". Report of the OPCW on the Implementation of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction in 2015 (Report). p. 42. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ "CSEPP Background Information". US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2 May 2006. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006.
- ^ "Milestones in U.S. Chemical Weapons Storage and Destruction, fact sheet, US Chemical Materials Agency". Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
- ^ Ashworth L (7 August 2008). "Base's phantom war reveals its secrets". Fairfax Digital. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008.
- ^ a b Chemical Warfare in Australia. Mustardgas.org. Retrieved on 29 May 2011.
- ^ Cumming, Stuart (11 November 2009). "Weapons await UN inspection". Toowoomba Chronicle.
- ^ "Farmer discovers 200 bombs (Dutch)". 5 March 2014.
- ^ "Cleanup Complete At WWI Chemical Weapons Dump In D.C.'s Spring Valley". DCist. Archived from the original on 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2022-02-07.
- ^ Sullivan, Kathleen (2002-10-22). "Vial found in Presidio may be mustard gas / Army experts expected to identify substance". sfgate.com.
- ^ Wickett, Shana; Beth Daley (2010-06-08). "Fishing crewman exposed to mustard gas from shell". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on June 9, 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-7022-2941-1.
- ^ Brook Island Trials of Mustard Gas during WW2. Home.st.net.au. Retrieved on 2011-05-29.
- NPR. Retrieved 2019-05-03.
... the Department of Veterans Affairs made two promises: to locate about 4,000 men who were used in the most extreme tests, and to compensate those who had permanent injuries.
- NPR. Retrieved 2019-05-03.
And it wasn't just African-Americans. Japanese-Americans were used [...] so scientists could explore how mustard gas and other chemicals might affect Japanese troops. Puerto Rican soldiers were also singled out.
- ^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 10th edition, Biomedical Publications, Seal Beach, CA, 2014, pp. 1892–1894.
Further reading
- Cook, Tim. "‘Against God-Inspired Conscience’: The Perception of Gas Warfare as a Weapon of Mass Destruction, 1915–1939." War & Society 18.1 (2000): 47-69.
- Dorsey, M. Girard. Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II (Cornell UP, 2023) online.
- Duchovic, Ronald J., and Joel A. Vilensky. "Mustard gas: its pre-World War I history." Journal of chemical education 84.6 (2007): 944. online
- Feister, Alan J. Medical defense against mustard gas: toxic mechanisms and pharmacological implications (1991). online
- Fitzgerald, Gerard J. "Chemical warfare and medical response during World War I." American journal of public health 98.4 (2008): 611-625. online
- * Freemantle, M. (2012). Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! How Chemistry Changed the First World War. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6601-9.
- Geraci, Matthew J. "Mustard gas: imminent danger or eminent threat?." Annals of Pharmacotherapy 42.2 (2008): 237-246. online
- Ghabili, Kamyar, et al. "Mustard gas toxicity: the acute and chronic pathological effects." Journal of applied toxicology 30.7 (2010): 627-643. online
- Jones, Edgar. "Terror weapons: The British experience of gas and its treatment in the First World War." War in History 21.3 (2014): 355-375. online
- MacPherson, W. G.; Herringham, W. P.; Elliott, T. R.; Balfour, A. (1923). Medical Services: Diseases of the War: Including the Medical Aspects of Aviation and Gas Warfare and Gas Poisoning in Tanks and Mines. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. II. London: HMSO. OCLC 769752656. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
- Padley, Anthony Paul. "Gas: the greatest terror of the Great War." Anaesthesia and intensive care 44.1_suppl (2016): 24-30. online
- Rall, David P., and Constance M. Pechura, eds. Veterans at risk: The health effects of mustard gas and lewisite (1993). online
- Richter, Donald (1994). Chemical Soldiers. Leo Cooper. ISBN 0850523885.
- Schummer, Joachim. "Ethics of chemical weapons research: Poison gas in World War One." Ethics of Chemistry: From Poison Gas to Climate Engineering (2021) pp. 55-83. online
- Smith, Susan I. Toxic Exposures: Mustard Gas and the Health Consequences of World War II in the United States (Rutgers University Press, 2017) online book review
- Wattana, Monica, and Tareg Bey. "Mustard gas or sulfur mustard: an old chemical agent as a new terrorist threat." Prehospital and disaster medicine 24.1 (2009): 19-29. online
External links
- Mustard gas (Sulphur Mustard) (IARC Summary & Evaluation, Supplement7, 1987). Inchem.org (1998-02-09). Retrieved on 2011-05-29.
- Institute of Medicine (1993). "History and Analysis of Mustard Agent and Lewisite Research Programs in the United States". Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-04832-3.
- "CDC - Facts About Sulfur Mustard". cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2006-08-09.
- "NATO Presses New Libyan Leaders to Eliminate Mustard Agent - Global Security Newswire - NTI". NTI: Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original on 2016-01-02. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
- Textbook of Military Medicine – Intensive overview of mustard gas Includes many references to scientific literature
- Detailed information on physical effects and suggested treatments
- Iyriboz Y (2004). "A Recent Exposure to Mustard Gas in the United States: Clinical Findings of a Cohort (n = 247) 6 Years After Exposure". MedGenMed. 6 (4): 4. PMID 15775831. Shows photographs taken in 1996 showing people with mustard gas burns.
- An overview of the sulfur and nitrogen mustard agents (Caution: contains graphic images)
- Questions and Answers for Mustard Gas
- UMDNJ-Rutgers University CounterACT Research Center of Excellence A research center studying mustard gas, includes searchable reference library with many early references on mustard gas.
- Clayton, William; Howard, Alfred John; Thomson, David (25 May 1946). "Treatment of Mustard Gas Burns". British Medical Journal. 1 (4455): 797–799. PMID 20786722.
- Nightmare in Bari
- surgical treatment of mustard gas burns
- UK Ministry of Defence Report on disposal of weapons at sea and incidents arising
- Rhydymwyn Valley History Society
- The advent of mustard gas in 1917, Simon Jones
- Measures to protect against mustard gas, 1917-1918, Simon Jones