Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces
Sultan's Armed Forces | |
---|---|
القوات المسلحة لسلطان عمان | |
Haitham bin Tariq Al Said | |
Minister of Defense | Shihab bin Tariq |
Chief of the Armed Forces Staff | Vice Admiral Abdullah bin Khamis bin Abdullah Al Raisi |
Personnel | |
Conscription | No |
Active personnel | 42,600 |
Reserve personnel | 100,000 |
Expenditures | |
Budget | US$8.686 billion (2017) |
Percent of GDP | 12.1% (2017) |
Industry | |
Domestic suppliers | Oman Engineering Company |
Related articles | |
Ranks | Military ranks of Oman |
The Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces (
History
Oman has a military history which dates back to the 7th century. At the time, the forces of the
The second known Omani army force was raised during the
During the later al Busaidi dynasty, (mainly during the time of
Buraimi dispute
Prior to 1954, when
For many centuries, the interior of Oman had been an autonomous region, the Imamate of Oman. The Imam of Oman was its religious and secular leader. In 1954, the Imam was Ghalib bin Ali. He had been prepared to muster Omani tribesmen to expel the Saudis from Buraimi, but at British instigation, the matter was settled by arbitration. To prevent the Imam interfering with the settlement over Buraimi, a battalion-sized task force, the Muscat and Oman Field Force was raised, and occupied the town of Ibri. The Sultan's prestige and authority was damaged by his disdain for his own people.
At this point, the SAF consisted of:
- Batinah Force (an infantry unit raised from the coastal region north of Muscat)
- Muscat Regiment (the expanded former Palace Guard).
- Muscat and Oman Field Force
Some British officers were attached to each unit.
Jebel Akhdar campaigns
With the Field Force occupying part of his territory, Ghalib tried to declare the Imamate of Oman independent, but in December 1955 the Field Force captured Ghalib at the town of Rostaq. He was released on recognisances.
Rebellion in 1957
Talib bin Ali, the Imam's brother, had fled to Saudi Arabia. He returned from there in 1957 with 300 well-equipped fighters, and the insurrection broke out again. Talib's forces occupied a fortified tower near Bilad Sait, which the Field Force lacked the heavy weapons to destroy. After some weeks' inconclusive fighting, Suleiman bin Himyar, the Sheikh of one of the major tribes in the interior, openly proclaimed his defiance of the Sultan, and began a general uprising. The Muscat and Oman Field Force was largely destroyed as it tried to retreat through hostile towns and villages.
The rebellion was suppressed by the Muscat Regiment and the
Stalemate 1957–1959
The Sultan's army was reorganised under a British soldier, Colonel
The Army was still unable to deal with Talib's stronghold. The few paths up the Jebel Akhdar were far too narrow to deploy attacking battalions or even companies. One attempt was made against the southern face of the Jebel, using four infantry companies (including two companies from the Trucial Oman Scouts, from what would later become the United Arab Emirates. The attackers withdrew hastily after concluding they were vulnerable to being ambushed and cut off. In another attempt, infantry launched a feint and then withdrew while Avro Shackleton bombers of the RAF bombarded the supposedly massed defenders. They inflicted no casualties.[1]
For two years, rebel infiltrators continually mined the roads around the Jebel, and ambushed SAF and British detachments and oil company vehicles. The SAF were spread in small detachments in the towns and villages at the foot of the Jebel, and thus vulnerable and on the defensive. Their arms (mainly British weapons of
It was estimated by some British officers that a full-scale attack by a British brigade would be required to recapture the jebel. Smiley and others felt that a smaller operation by Special Forces with air support would suffice. Eventually in 1959, two squadrons from the British
Later operations in Oman
Some insurgents continued to cross into Oman from Saudi Arabia or via the UAE, and laid landmines which continued to cause casualties to SAF units and civilian vehicles. The SAF lacked the numbers to prevent this infiltration. A paramilitary force, the Oman Gendarmerie was formed in 1960 to assist the SAF in this task, and also to take over normal policing duties. The landmine campaign eventually dwindled away.
The only apparent threat to Oman at this point appeared to be a shadowy Marxist group who attempted to assassinate the Sultan's Interior Minister, and may also have planted bombs on civil aircraft, including a
Dhofar campaign
In 1964, a rebellion began in the southern province of
The Sultan's forces in Dhofar consisted only of an irregular Dhofar Force, recruited from local "jibali" tribes. Only in 1965 were two battalions of the SAF sent to the province. Most units of the Omani Army at this time were understrength, and badly equipped and trained. The air force consisted of a few piston-engined transport and ground-attack aircraft. The navy possessed a single dhow.
The Dhofar Force was disbanded in 1966, after some of its members tried to assassinate the Sultan. The Desert Regiment was raised to replace it. The Southern Regiment was also formed and all Baluchi soldiers were eventually concentrated in the two battalions of this regiment, although the change took several years to implement fully.
The rebellion continued at a low level until 1967. In that year, the establishment of the
By 1969, the Adoo, as the rebels were known, had overrun much of Dhofar, and there were attacks on SAF positions elsewhere in Oman. It was clear to the Sultan's British backers and advisors that the situation was critical. Said bin Taimur's rule had been reactionary and despotic. Almost all progress since the Middle Ages had been outlawed in Oman. In 1970, the Sultan was overthrown in a palace coup, which was planned and supported by the British. His son, Qaboos bin Said, replaced him.
Reform and modernisation
Qaboos had attended
Meanwhile, the regular units of the Army were expanded and re-equipped. More Omanis were recruited and Baluchis were concentrated in separated units. Large numbers of officers and NCO instructors seconded from the British Army and Royal Marines were attached to units. (There were also several British and Commonwealth mercenaries). Two new infantry units were raised in 1971: the Frontier Force (a Baluchi unit) in Dhofar, and the Jebel Regiment in the interior of Oman.
The various supporting arms, which had previously existed as ad hoc units and detachments were also formally established. The new corps were the Artillery Regiment, Signal Regiment, Armoured Car Squadron, Engineering Unit, Garrison Detachment and the Training Regiment. The Oman Gendarmerie was also strengthened and modernised.
The Air Force acquired
Later operations in Dhofar
The army established lines of defensive posts to block rebel movements and supply trains, assisted by troops supplied by the Shah of Iran. The process took time, but by 1972 the rebels were being starved of support. To retrieve the situation, they launched a major attack on the coastal town of Mirbat, but were defeated by Firqats, Gendarmerie and SAS detachments, with air support.
In 1973, an SAF offensive intended to capture the main rebel supply base at Shershitti Caves was defeated, although an exposed position at Sarfait near the border with the PDRY was captured. This position, codenamed Simba, was held for two years. Meanwhile, the Adoo were slowly driven to the edge of their former territory. Another offensive in 1975 finally isolated the rebels from the PDRY. The rebellion was declared to be over in 1976.
At the end of this period, the Army numbered 13,000. It was organised into a Southern Brigade (under Brigadier
Gulf Wars
In the years following the end of the Dhofar rebellion, the SAF continued to expand and modernise. Links with Britain remained close and all three UK armed services have provided advisers on Loan Service to the SAF and this arrangement remains in place; although numbers have steadily reduced as 'Omanisation' progressed.
In 1987 there was a border conflict with the PDRY which saw the whole of the SAF mobilised. Sorties into Oman by Toyota pickup trucks armed with Dushka 12.5mm heavy machine guns killed several lightly-armed Omani troops. The PDRY sent a Motorised Infantry force to reinforce the border but this was destroyed by SOAF Jaguars. Peace talks quickly followed.
As part of the
In 1990, the Iraqi Army unexpectedly invaded
An Omani battalion served in Saudi Arabia, as part of the GCC contribution to the ground war to liberate Kuwait. It formed part of the Saudi Arabian-led Task Force Omar along with the Saudi 10th Mechanised Brigade. It advanced into Kuwait on the second day of the ground offensive and had no casualties.
In 2001, Oman hosted a large contingent of the British Army, which held Exercise
Present day
Since the defeat of the Dhofar insurgents, the likelihood of internal strife caused by poverty or tribal dissension has steadily decreased as a result of the increasing standards of living, and the provision of public health and education.
Tension on Oman's western border has lessened since the Yemeni unification in 1990. Oman includes the tip of the Musandam Peninsula in the Persian Gulf, which may be significant in future conflicts in the region.
The army has steadily decreased its dependence on British and other foreign assistance, and increased its degree of mechanisation, although emphasis on light infantry operations remains; as part of their training, soldiers repeat the SAS ascent of the Jebel Akhdar in 1959. The Navy is one of the most modern in the region, and the Air Force is respected.
In any future major regional conflict, Oman may be able to rely on support and aid from Britain and the United States.
Equipment
The army is qualitatively superior to that of many neighbouring countries except Saudi Arabia and Iran, with one regiment of British-built
The primary assault rifle of the Omani army is the Austrian Steyr AUG rifle, with some special task units using M-16 and M-4 variants, plus many other small arms varieties.
Air Force Equipment
References
- ^ Allfrey, Philip, Warlords of Oman
- ^ UK, The National Archives. "Policy on loan service personnel from UK to Oman and direct military assistance". discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
- ^ UK, The National Archives. "Loan service personnel for Oman". discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
- ^ "Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces Association annual dinner". www.gov.uk. UK Government. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Sources
- Warlords of Oman, by Philip Allfree, 1967, Barnes
- Desert Warrior, by HRH Khaled bin Sultan, 1995, Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-255612-X