Malacca Sultanate

Sultanate of Malacca کسلطانن ملاک‎ Kesultanan Melaka
c. 1400–1511
Parameswara
• 1414–1424	Megat Iskandar Shah
• 1424–1444	Muhammad Shah
• 1444–1446	Abu Syahid Shah
• 1446–1459	Muzaffar Shah
• 1459–1477	Mansur Shah
• 1477–1481	Alauddin Riayat Shah
• 1481–1511	Mahmud Shah
• 1511–1513	Ahmad Shah
• 1513–1528	Mahmud Shah
Bendahara
• 1400–1412 (first)	Tun Perpatih Permuka Berjajar
• 1445–1456	Tun Ali
• 1456–1498	Tun Perak
• 1498–1500	Tun Perpatih Putih
• 1500–1510	Tun Mutahir
• 1510–1511	Tun Pikrama
Establishment
• Founding	c.1400
•  Perak Sultanate	1528
Currency	Tin ingot, native gold and silver coins
Preceded by Succeeded by Kingdom of Singapura Johor Sultanate Perak Sultanate Pahang Sultanate Portuguese Malacca
Today part of	c. Malaysia – c. Indonesia

The Malacca Sultanate (

The founding of Malacca is generally taken to be c. 1400.[2] The region was dominated by the Srivijaya empire centered on Palembang in Sumatra until it was weakened by the Chola Empire in the 11th century. By the end of the 13th century, the Javanese Singhasari followed by the Majapahit had become dominant.

According to the

In an effort to revive the fortune of Malayu in Sumatra, in the 1370s, a Malay ruler of Palembang sent an envoy to the court of the first emperor of the newly established Ming dynasty. He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like Srivijaya did centuries earlier. Learning of this diplomatic maneuver, King Hayam Wuruk of Majapahit sent an envoy to Nanking and convinced the emperor that Malayu was their vassal, and not an independent country.^[10] Subsequently, in 1377—a few years after the death of Gajah Mada, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang,^[11]: 19 which caused the diaspora of the Palembang princes and nobles.

By the second half of the 14th century, the Kingdom of Singapura grew wealthy. However, its success alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayutthaya to the north and Majapahit to the south. As a result, the kingdom's fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by either Ayutthaya or Majapahit in 1398.^[12][13][14] The last king of Singapura then fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula.

Malay and Portuguese sources give different accounts of the fall of Singapura and its last king. In Portuguese sources, he is referred to as Parameswara and originated in Palembang but usurped the throne of Singapura, but in Malay sources he is Iskandar Shah, a descendant Seri Teri Buana who became the fifth king of Singapura.^[15] Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam River (modern-day Malacca River). The village belonged to the Orang Laut who were left alone by Majapahit's forces that not only sacked Singapura but also Langkasuka and Pasai. As a result, the village became a safe haven and in the 1370s it began to receive a growing number of refugees fleeing Majapahit's attacks. By the time Parameswara reached Malacca in the early 1400s, the place was already cosmopolitan feel with Buddhists from the north, Hindus from Palembang and Muslims from Pasai.^[16]

Legend has it that Parameswara saw a

Following the establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara began to develop the city and laid the foundation of a trade port. The

There is uncertainty in the chronology of the early rulers of Malacca due to discrepancies contained in Malay, Chinese and Portuguese sources, such as the names, number of rulers and reign details:[26]

Due to the differences, there are disagreements about the early rulers of Malacca. It is, however, generally accepted that the Parameswara of Portuguese and Chinese sources and Iskandar Shah of the Malay Annals were the same person, but a number of authors also accept the similarly named

Modern depictions of Malacca Sultanate

Reconstruction of the port of Melaka after its foundation, from Malacca Maritime Museum

Melaka Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah (1477–1488) by Maembong Ayoh

Between 1424 and 1433, two more royal visits to China were made during the reign of the third ruler, Raja Tengah (r. 1424–1444),^[33][34] named Sri Maharaja in some sources.^[26] During Raja Tengah's rule, it was said that an ulama called Saiyid Abdul Aziz came to Malacca to spread the teaching of Islam. The king together with his royal family, senior officials and the subjects of Malacca listened to his teachings.^[35] Shortly after, Raja Tengah adopted the Muslim name, Muhammad Shah and the title Sultan on the advice of the ulama.^[36] He began to Islamise his administration—customs, royal protocols, bureaucracy and commerce were made to conform to the principles of Islam. As Malacca became increasingly important as an international trading centre, the equitable regulation of trade was the key to continued prosperity—and the Undang-Undang Laut Melaka (Maritime Laws of Malacca), promulgated during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Shah, was an important facet of this. So too was the appointment of four Shahbandars for the different communities of the port. This accommodated foreign traders, who were also assigned their own enclaves in the city.^[37] In the 1430s, China had reversed its policy of maritime expansion. However, by then Malacca was strong enough militarily to defend itself. In spite of these developments, China maintained a continuous show of friendship, suggesting that it placed Malacca in high regard. In fact, although it was China's practice to consider most foreign countries as vassal states, including Italy and Portugal, its relations with Malacca were characterised by mutual respect and friendship, such as that between two sovereign countries.^[38]

Muhammad Shah died in 1444 after reigning for twenty years and left behind two sons; Raja Kasim, the son of Tun Wati who in turn a daughter of a wealthy Indian merchant, and Raja Ibrahim, the son of the Princess of Rokan. He was succeeded by his younger son, Raja Ibrahim, who reigned as Sultan

Malacca reached its height of glory between the mid to late 15th century up to before the Portuguese occupation. The reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah saw the territorial incorporation of the region between

The reign of Mansur Shah (r. 1459–1477) witnessed a major expansion of the sultanate. Among the earliest territory ceded to the sultanate was Pahang, with its capital, Inderapura—a massive unexplored land with a large river and abundant source of gold which was ruled by Maharaja Dewa Sura, a relative of the King of Ligor. The Sultan dispatched a fleet of two hundred ships, led by Tun Perak and 19 Malaccan hulubalangs. On reaching Pahang, a battle broke out in which the Pahangites were decisively defeated and its entire royal court were captured. The Malaccan fleet returned home with Dewa Sura and his daughter, Wanang Seri who were handed over to Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sultan appointed Tun Hamzah to rule Pahang.^[44][45] A policy of rapprochement with Ligor was later initiated by Mansur Shah to ensure steady supplies of rice.^[38]

On his royal visit to Majapahit, Mansur Shah was also accompanied by these warriors. At that time, Majapahit was already declining and found itself unable to overcome the rising power of the Malaccan Sultanate. After a display of Malaccan military prowess in his court, the king of Majapahit, afraid of losing more territories, agreed to marry off his daughter, Raden Galuh Cendera Kirana to Sultan Mansur Shah and hand over control of Indragiri, Jambi, Tungkal and Siantan to Malacca.^[46][47] Mansur Shah was also able to vassalise Siak in Sumatra. Later in his reign, Pahang, Kampar and Indragiri rebelled but were eventually subdued.^[27]

The friendly relations between China and Malacca escalated during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sultan sent an envoy headed by Tun Perpatih Putih to China, carrying a diplomatic letter from the Sultan to the Emperor. According to the Malay Annals, Tun Perpatih succeeded in impressing the Emperor of China with the fame and grandeur of Sultan Mansur Shah that the Emperor decreed that his daughter,

The expansionist policy of Mansur Shah was maintained throughout his reign when he later added

Following the 1511 conquest, the city of Malacca remained under Portuguese control for the next 130 years despite incessant attempts by the former rulers of Malacca and other regional powers to dislodge them (see

The efforts to propagate Christianity which was also one of the principal aims of Portuguese imperialism did not, meet with much success, primarily because Islam was already strongly entrenched among the local population.^[59]

Chinese retaliation

The Portuguese conquest of Malacca enraged the Zhengde Emperor of China when he received the envoys from the exiled Sultan Mahmud.^[61] The furious Chinese emperor responded with force, culminating in a period of persecution of Portuguese in China which lasted three decades.^{[citation needed]}

Among the earliest victims were the Portuguese envoys led by

In response to Portuguese piracy and the illegal installation of bases in Fujian at Wuyu island, Yue harbour at Zhangzhou, Shuangyu island in Zhejiang, and Nan'ao island in Guangdong, the Imperial Chinese Right Deputy Commander Zhu Wan killed all the pirates and razed the Shuangyu Portuguese base, using force to prohibit trading with foreigners by sea.^[65] Moreover, Chinese traders boycotted Malacca after it fell under Portuguese control, with some Chinese in Java even assisting in Muslim attempts to invade the city.^[66]

Relations gradualy improved and aid was given against the Japanese

The exiled Sultan Mahmud Shah made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless. The Portuguese retaliated and forced the Sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the Sultan sailed to Bintan and established his capital there. From the new base, the Sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese's position. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and helped convince the Portuguese that the exiled Sultan's forces needed to be destroyed. A number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay forces but were unsuccessful, until 1526 when the Portuguese razed Bintan. The Sultan retreated to Kampar in Sumatra where he died two years later. He left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II.

Muzaffar Shah was invited by the people in the north of the peninsula to become their ruler, establishing the Sultanate of Perak. Meanwhile, Mahmud Shah's other son, Alauddin succeeded his father and established the

The fall of Malacca benefited other kingdoms such as Brunei whose ports became a new entrepôt as the kingdom emerged as a new center of trade in the Malay Archipelago, attracting many Muslim traders who fled from the Portuguese occupation after the ruler of Brunei's conversion to Islam.^[69][70]

Administration

Malacca had a well-defined government with a set of laws. At the top of the sultanate's hierarchy sat the

Below the Sultan was a Bendahara, a position similar to that of a vizier, who acted as an advisor to the Sultan. It was the highest-ranking office that could be held by any common people in Malacca. The Bendahara was also responsible for ensuring cordial relations with foreign states. Malacca's fifth Bendahara, Tun Perak, excelled in both war and diplomacy. Twice during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah, Tun Perak successfully led Malaccan armed forces in repelling Siamese attacks on Malacca. When Sultan Mansur Shah ascended the throne, acting on Tun Perak's advice, he agreed to dispatch a peace envoy to Siam. Tun Perak also advised the Sultan to marry the daughter of the King of Majapahit, Malacca's traditional enemy.^[4]

Next to the Bendahara was a state treasurer, called the Penghulu bendahari. Next was the

The sultanate was governed with several sets of laws. The formal legal text of traditional Malacca consisted of the Undang-Undang Melaka (Laws of Malacca), variously called the Hukum Kanun Melaka and Risalat Hukum Kanun, and the Undang-Undang Laut Melaka (the Maritime Laws of Malacca'). The laws as written in the legal digests went through an evolutionary process. The legal rules that eventually evolved were shaped by three main influences, namely the early non-indigenous Hindu/Buddhist tradition, Islam and the indigenous "adat".^[37]

Islam and Malay culture

Whether the first ruler of Malacca, Parameswara, converted to Islam is unkown as their is no evidence to suggest that he had. The 16th-century Portuguese writer Tomé Pires explicitly mentioned that Parameswara was succeeded by his son, Megat Iskandar Shah who only converted to Islam at age 72. On the other hand, the Malay Annals noted that it was during the reign of the third ruler Muhammad Shah (r. 1424–1444), that the ruling class and their subjects began accepting Islam. While there are differing views on when the Islamization of Malacca actually took place, it is generally agreed that Islam was firmly established during the reign of Muzaffar Shah (r. 1445–1459).^[71]

]

Trade

Malacca developed from a small settlement to a cosmopolitan

southwest monsoon.^[43]

There were other ports along the Strait of Malacca such as Kedah in the peninsula and Jambi and Palembang in Sumatra, yet none of them came close to challenging Malacca's success as a centre of international trade. Malacca had an edge over these ports because its rulers created an environment that was safe and conducive for business. Chinese records of the mid-15th century stated that Malacca flourished as a centre for trade on account of its effective security measures. It also had a well-equipped and well-managed port. Among the facilities provided for merchants were warehouses, where they could safely house their goods as they awaited favourable trade winds, as well as elephants for transporting goods to the warehouses. To administer the cosmopolitan marketplace, the traders were grouped according to region and placed under one of four shahbandars.^[43]

Malacca had few domestic products with which to trade. It produced small amounts of

fish roe and seaweed. From the coastal regions on both sides of Straint of Malacca came forest products; rattan, resin, roots and wax, and some gold and tin. These goods were then shipped to ports west of Malacca especially Gujarat.^[43]

Tin ingots were a trading currency unique to Malacca. Cast in the shape of a peck, each block weighs just over one pound. Ten blocks made up one unit called a "small bundle", and 40 blocks made up one "large bundle". Gold and silver coins were also issued by Malacca as a trading currency within the sultanate.^{[citation needed]}

Legacy

The Malacca Sultanate heralded the golden age of the

Samudra Pasai and Aru, which also possessed well-established ports, none of them came close in challenging Malacca's success in expanding its territory and influence in the region. Malacca also contributed to the evolution of a common Malay culture based on Islam by incorporating native and Hindu-Buddhist ideas and layered them extensively with Islamic ideas and values.^[75] Through its traditions, laws, and royal rituals and customs, the Malaccan court set an example for later Muslim sultanates in the region to follow.^{[citation needed}

]

Malacca is important to the modern nation of

Sultanate of Johor.^{[citation needed}

]

The Malacca Sultanate also emerged as the primary base in continuing the historic struggles of its predecessors,

Classical Malay that eventually became the lingua franca of the region. The advent of Islam coupled with flourishing trade that used Malay as medium of communication, culminated in the domination of Malacca and other succeeding Malay-Muslim sultanates in Maritime Southeast Asia. As noted by certain scholars, the historic Malay-Javanese rivalry in the region, has persisted into modern times, and continues to shape the diplomatic relations between the Malay-centric Malaysia and the Java-based Indonesia.^[77]

See also

• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• Sultanate of Johor
• Sultanate of Kedah
• Sultanate of Brunei
• Sultanate of Singgora
• Sultanate of Riau-Lingga

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Further reading

• Ahmad, A. Samad (1979), Sulalatus Salatin (Sejarah Melayu), Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
  ISBN 983-62-5601-6, archived from the original
  on 12 October 2013
• Abdul Rahman, Haji Ismail; Abdullah Zakaria, Ghazali; Zulkanain, Abdul Rahman (2011), A New Date on the Establishment of Melaka Malay Sultanate Discovered (PDF), Institut Kajian Sejarah dan Patriotisme ( Institute of Historical Research and Patriotism ), retrieved 4 November 2012^{[permanent dead link]}
• Abshire, Jean E. (2011), The History of Singapore, Greenwood,
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• Ahmad Ibrahim; Sharon Siddique; Yasmin Hussain (1985), Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,
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• Ahmad Sarji, Abdul Hamid (2011), The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, vol. 16 – The Rulers of Malaysia, Editions Didier Millet,
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• Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Yuzon (1984), A History of Malaysia, London: Palgrave Macmillan,
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