Oman

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Coordinates: 21°N 57°E / 21°N 57°E / 21; 57
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Sultanate of Oman
سلطنة عُمان (
Arabic
)
Salṭanat ʻUmān
Emblem of Oman
Emblem
Anthem: نشيد السلام السلطاني
"
Muscat
23°35′20″N 58°24′30″E / 23.58889°N 58.40833°E / 23.58889; 58.40833
Official languagesArabic[1]
Religion
(2023)
Demonym(s)Omani
GovernmentUnitary Islamic absolute monarchy
• Sultan
Haitham bin Tariq
Theyazin bin Haitham
Legislature
Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura)
Establishment
• Azd tribe migration
130
• Al-Julanda
629
• Imamate established[3]
751
1154
1507–1656
1624
1744
8 January 1856
• Sultanate of Oman
9 August 1970
6 November 1996 (established); 2011 (amended); 2021 (amended)[4]
عمان.
Website
www.oman.om

Oman,

exclaves are surrounded by United Arab Emirates on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz
(which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries.

From the 17th century, the Omani

Sultanate was an empire, vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence in the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence and control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar.[12] In the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires were based on mutual benefit. The UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading hub that secured British trading-lanes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected London's interests in the Indian sub-continent. Oman is an absolute monarchy led by a sultan, with power passed down through the male line. Qaboos bin Said was the Sultan from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020.[13] Qaboos, who died childless, had named his cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, as his successor in a letter, and the ruling family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman.[14]

Formerly a maritime empire, Oman is the oldest continuously independent state in the

high-income economy and as of 2023 Oman ranks as the 48th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index.[19]

Etymology

The oldest written mention about Oman was found from a tomb located in the Mleiha Archeological Center in the United Arab Emirates. "Bilingual South-Arabian / Aramaic funerary inscription discovered inside the burial chamber of tomb FA-5, Mleiha, Sharjah, UAE. (Overlaet 2018:14 Figure 9, Catalog No. 1). Central panel in south Arabian script, text along the rim in Aramaic. Text reads "Memorial and tomb of Amud son of Gurr son of Ali, inspector of the king of Oman, [...]" [20] The origin of Oman's name seems to be some centuries older than the mention by

Ma'rib presumed to have been the origin of the city's founders, the Azd, a tribe migrating from Yemen.[24]
Undoubtedly, the word "Oman" is of Persian origin.[25][contradictory] The Iranians referred to him as « Mozon ; مزون ».[26]

History

Main article: History of Oman

Prehistory and ancient history

UNESCO World Heritage
Late Iron Age
sites in Oman

At Aybut Al Auwal, in the

lithic industry—the late Nubian Complex—known previously only from the northeast and Horn of Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.[27]

In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman.

Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. At the archaeological sites of Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metals industry artifacts, and monumental architecture have been preserved.[29]

There is considerable agreement in sources that

UNESCO World Heritage site, dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to South Arabian
civilizations.

During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman.[30] It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.[31]

In the 1970s and 1980s, scholars like

Suhar.[33] Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabia under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian finds speak against this belief. Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 BCE.[30]

Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as "Magan"[34][35] and in the Akkadian language "Makan",[36][37] a name which links Oman's ancient copper resources.[38]

Arab settlement

Over centuries tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding, and many present day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the

Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia), named Nizari. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.[31]

BCE and 100 CE

The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman".[39] Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates, is believed to have settled in Oman.[39] According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.[40] He is said to have first settled in Qalhat. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the Marzban, who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces.[31][41][42][43] This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict as well as an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants.[41][44][45]

In the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted

Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amer was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.[48]

Imamate of Oman

Omani

Jaber bin Zaid. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman.[49] Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the Jebel Akhdar (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.[50][51][52]

Bahla Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage site, was built between 12th and 15th c. by the Nabhani dynasty.

The first elective

Wāli (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in 751 CE.[54][55] The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE.[49] The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during the time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty, the Far East, and Africa flourished.[56] The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire.[57][54]

Nabhani dynasty

Further information: Nabhani dynasty

During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the

Muscat, and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast.[61] Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in 1435 CE when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.[31]

Portuguese era

The Portuguese Empire ruled Oman for 143 years (1507–1650)

A decade after

Muscat for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified the city. Remnants of Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz Island
.

However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.[62]

Later in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the

English East India Company supported by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.[63]

Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)

Further information: Omani Empire
Following the expulsion of the Portuguese Empire, Oman became one of the powers in the western Indian Ocean from 1698 onwards.[64]

The

Swahili Coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747.[49][66]

18th and 19th centuries

Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar
, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans

After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi became the elected Imam of Oman in 1749, with Rustaq serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.[67] Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.[68][69] During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.[70]

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of modern-day Pakistan.[note 1][71]

British de facto colonisation

The

British empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.[72][56] The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection.[56][72] In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas.[73][49][74] A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.[74] As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.[64]

A British naval squadron in Muscat[75]

In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani

Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government.[76] The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.[77] Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.[70] By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters.[72][78][79][80] The Sultanate thus came de facto under the British sphere.[79][81]

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main

Sa'id bin Sultan, to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.[82]

Treaty of Seeb

The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat

The Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.[citation needed] The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman.[56] The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals.[83] In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the Treaty of Seeb. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat.[72][84][85][86] In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.[49]

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British

political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the High Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate.[87] On 31 July 1928, the Red Line Agreement was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC).[88] On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.[89]

Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970)

Sultan Said bin Taimur ruled from 1932 to 1970.

Said bin Taimur became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan

feudal, reactionary and isolationist.[86][56][79][90] The British government maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for two were British.[79][91] In 1937, an agreement between the sultan and Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was 23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near Fahud, an area located within the Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate.[92][93]

In a 1951 treaty covering commerce, oil reserves and navigation, the United Kingdom recognized the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman as a fully independent state.

In 1955, the

Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$3 million.[note 2][94] Gwadar then became a tehsil
in the Makran district.

Jebel Akhdar War

Further information: Jebel Akhdar War
British Royal Air Force strike aircraft during Jebel Akhdar War

Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government.

Ghalib Alhinai was elected Imam.[98]
Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions.

In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including

RAF aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion.[100] The Imamate's forces retreated to the inaccessible Jebel Akhdar.[100][92]

Colonel David Smiley, who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus.[101] On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman.[90] Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops.[79][90] On 27 January 1959, the Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a surprise operation.[101] Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to Saudi Arabia, where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s.[101] The exiled partisans of the now abolished Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the Arab League and the United Nations.[102][103] On 11 December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study the 'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly.[104] The UN General Assembly adopted the 'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence.[105][106][81][107][108][109]

Dhofar War

Further information: Dhofar War

In the

Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup in 1970 by his son Qaboos bin Said with British support. Qaboos expanded the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces
, modernized the state's administration and introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1976 with the help of forces from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and Britain.

Modern history (1970–present)

Sultan Qaboos bin Said, whose reign saw a rise in living standards and development, the abolition of slavery, the end of the Dhofar Rebellion, and the promulgation of Oman's constitution

After deposing his father in 1970,

Sultan Qaboos opened up the country, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare.[110] Saudi Arabia invested in the development of the Omani education system, sending Saudi teachers on its own expense.[111][112] Slavery, once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970.[113]

In 1971, Oman joined the United Nations, as did Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.

In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation

Consultative Assembly of Oman. Two women were duly elected to the body. In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio, Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah, to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship.[114] Despite these changes, there was little change to the actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year.[15]

Inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, protests occurred in Oman during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011, elections were held to the Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of 'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail terms.[115]

Qaboos, the Arab world's longest-serving ruler, died on 10 January 2020.[116] Leaving no heir on succession, on 11 January 2020 Qaboos was succeeded by his first cousin Haitham bin Tariq.[117]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Oman
Wadi Shab
An oasis in Oman
The coast of Sur, Oman

Oman lies between latitudes

Muscat, Sohar and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south and Musandam
. Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast.

The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem), strategically located on the Strait of Hormuz, is an exclave separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates.[120]

Madha, another exclave, is an enclave within UAE territory located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman.[120] Madha, part of the Musandam governorate, covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 sq mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 metres (33 ft) from the Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of the town of New Madha, and consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.[121]

The central desert of Oman is a source of meteorites for scientific analysis.[122]

Climate

Main article:
Climate of Oman
Oman is the fourteenth most water stressed country in the world

Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally has one of the hottest climates in the world—with summer temperatures in Muscat and northern Oman averaging 30 to 40 °C (86.0 to 104.0 °F).

Dhofar Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog.[124] Summer temperatures in Salalah range from 20 to 30 °C (68.0 to 86.0 °F)—relatively cool compared to northern Oman.[125]

The mountain areas receive more rainfall, and annual rainfall on the higher parts of the

Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching around 54 °C (129.2 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.[128]

On 26 June 2018 the city of Qurayyat set the record for highest minimum temperature in a 24-hour period, 42.6°C (108.7°F).[129]

In terms of climate action, major challenges remain to be solved, per the United Nations Sustainable Development 2019 index. The CO2 emissions from energy (tCO2/capita) and CO2 emissions embodied in fossil fuel exports (kg per capita) rates are very high, while imported CO2 emissions (tCO2/capita) and people affected by climate-related disasters (per 100,000 people) rates are low.[130]

Biodiversity

Nakhal palm tree farms in Oman's Al Batinah Region
Dhofar

oleander and varieties of acacia. The Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion, the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr
.

Osprey in Yiti Beach, Oman

Arabian Oryx Sanctuary is the first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage List, following the government's 2007 decision to reduce the site's area by 90% to clear the way for oil prospectors.[132]

Local and national entities have noted unethical treatment of animals in Oman. In particular, stray dogs (and to a lesser extent, stray cats) are often the victims of torture, abuse or neglect.[133] The only approved method of decreasing the stray dog population is shooting by police officers. The Oman government has refused to implement a spay and neuter programme or create any animal shelters in the country. Cats, while seen as more acceptable than dogs, are viewed as pests and frequently die of starvation or illness.[134][135]

In recent years, Oman has become one of the newer hot spots for whale watching, highlighting the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale, sperm whales and pygmy blue whales.[136]

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Oman and Human rights in Oman
The Sultan's Al Alam Palace in Old Muscat

Oman is a unitary state and an absolute monarchy,[137] in which all legislative, executive and judiciary power ultimately rests in the hands of the hereditary Sultan. Consequently, Freedom House has routinely rated the country "Not Free".[138]

The sultan is the head of state and directly controls the foreign affairs and defence portfolios.[139] He has absolute power and issues laws by decree.[140][141]

Legal system

Oman is an

Sharia law
is one of the sources of legislation. Sharia court departments within the civil court system are responsible for family-law matters, such as divorce and inheritance.

While ultimate power is concentrated in the Sultan[13] and Oman does not have an official separation of powers,[13] the late Sultan Qaboos declined to grant the full title Minister of Defence, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Finance to the ministers exercising those responsibilities, preferring to keep them within the Royal Domain. The current Sultan Haitham has granted the ministers responsible of those portfolios the full titles, whilst elevating the defense portfolio to that of a deputy prime minister.[13] Since 1970 all legislation has been promulgated through royal decrees, including the 1996 Basic Law.[13] The Sultan appoints the ministers, the judges, and can grant pardons and commute sentences.[13] The Sultan's authority is inviolable and the Sultan expects total subordination to his will.[13]

The administration of justice is highly personalized, with limited due process protections, especially in political and security-related cases.[142] The Basic Statute of the State[143] is supposedly the cornerstone of the Omani legal system and it operates as a constitution for the country. The Basic Statute was issued in 1996 and thus far has only been amended twice: in 2011,[144] in response to protests; and in 2021, to create the position of Crown Prince of Oman.

Though Oman's legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms, both are regularly ignored by the regime.[13] Women and children face legal discrimination in many areas.[13] Women are excluded from certain state benefits, such as housing loans, and are refused equal rights under the personal status law.[13] Women also experience restrictions on their self-determination in respect to health and reproductive rights.[13]

The Omani legislature is the bicameral Council of Oman, consisting of an upper chamber, the Council of State (Majlis ad-Dawlah) and a lower chamber, the Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura).[145] Political parties are banned, as are any affiliations based on religion.[141] The upper chamber has 71 members, appointed by the Sultan from among prominent Omanis; it has only advisory powers.[146] The 84 members of the Consultative Assembly are elected by universal suffrage to serve four-year terms.[146] The members are appointed for three-year terms, which may be renewed once.[145] The last elections were held on 29 October 2023, and the next is due in October 2027. Oman's national anthem, As-Salam as-Sultani is dedicated to former Sultan Qaboos.

Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign relations of Oman
Sultan Haitham bin Tariq with US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, February 2020

Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy, and has expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. Oman is among the very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with Iran.[147][148] Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah is the Sultanate's Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs.

Oman allowed the British

Al Duqm Port & Drydock.[149]

Military

Main article: Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces
Royal Navy of Oman Khareef-class corvette, Al-Shamikh

SIPRI's estimation of Oman's military and security expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 2020 was 11 percent, making it the world's highest rate in that year, higher than Saudi Arabia (8.4 percent).[150] Oman's on-average military spending as a percentage of GDP between 2016 and 2018 was around 10 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.[151]

Oman's military manpower totalled 44,100 in 2006, including 25,000 men in the army, 4,200 sailors in the navy, and an air force with 4,100 personnel. The

Royal Household maintained 5,000 Guards, 1,000 in Special Forces, 150 sailors in the Royal Yacht fleet, and 250 pilots and ground personnel in the Royal Flight squadrons. Oman also maintains a modestly sized paramilitary force of 4,400 men.[152]

The

M60A3 and 38 Challenger 2 main battle tanks, as well as 37 aging Scorpion light tanks.[152]

The

A202-18 Bravos and 8 MFI-17B Mushshaqs.[152]

The

SIPRI, Oman was the 23rd largest arms importer from 2012 to 2016.[156]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Oman
See also: LGBT rights in Oman

Torture methods in use in Oman include mock execution, beating, hooding, solitary confinement, subjection to extremes of temperature and to constant noise, abuse and humiliation.[157][158] There have been numerous reports of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by Omani security forces on protesters and detainees.[159] Several prisoners detained in 2012 complained of sleep deprivation, extreme temperatures and solitary confinement.[160] Homosexuality is criminalised within Oman.[161]

Mohammed Al-Fazari, an exiled Omani writer and journalist now living in the UK, is an author whose books are banned in Oman. He is also the founder and EIC of Muwatin.[162]

The Omani government decides who can or cannot be a journalist and this permission can be withdrawn at any time.[163] Censorship and self-censorship are a constant factor.[163] Omanis have limited access to political information through the media.[164] Access to news and information can be problematic: journalists have to be content with news compiled by the official news agency on some issues.[163] Through a decree by the Sultan, the government has now extended its control over the media to blogs and other websites.[163] Omanis cannot hold a public meeting without the government's approval.[163] Omanis who want to set up a non-governmental organisation of any kind need a licence.[163] The Omani government does not permit the formation of independent civil society associations.[159] Human Rights Watch issued in 2016, that an Omani court sentenced three journalists to prison and ordered the permanent closure of their newspaper, over an article that alleged corruption in the judiciary.[165]

Omani law prohibits criticism of the Sultan and government in any form or medium.

search warrants to enter people's homes.[163] The law does not provide citizens with the right to change their government.[163] The Sultan retains ultimate authority on all foreign and domestic issues.[163] Government officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws.[163] Criticism of government figures and politically objectionable views have been suppressed.[163] Publication of books is limited and the government restricts their importation and distribution, as with other media products.[163]

Omani citizens need government permission to marry foreigners.[160] According to HRW, women in Oman face discrimination.[162]

The plight of domestic workers in Oman is a taboo subject.[166][167] In 2011, the Philippines government determined that out of all the countries in the Middle East, only Oman and Israel qualify as safe for Filipino migrants.[168][167] Migrant workers remained insufficiently protected against exploitation.[169]

Administrative divisions

Governorates and maritime features of Oman (in German)
Main article:
Regions and governorates of Oman

The Sultanate is administratively divided into eleven governorates. Governorates are, in turn, divided into 60

wilayats.[170][171]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Oman
Historical development of real GDP per capita in Oman

Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that the "national economy is based on justice and the principles of a

dates, limes, grains and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under cultivation
, Oman is likely to remain a net importer of food.

Oman's socio-economic structure is described as being hyper-centralized rentier welfare state.[174] The largest 10 percent of corporations in Oman are the employers of almost 80 percent of Omani nationals in the private sector. Half of the private sector jobs are classified as elementary. One third of employed Omanis are in the private sector, while the remaining majority are in the public sector.[175] A hyper-centralized structure produces a monopoly-like economy, which hinders having a healthy competitive environment between businesses.[174]

Muscat Securities Market

Since a slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, namely tourism and infrastructure. Oman had a 2020 Vision to diversify the economy established in 1995, which targeted a decrease in oil's share to less than 10 percent of GDP by 2020, but it was rendered obsolete in 2011. Oman then established 2040 Vision.[174] A free-trade agreement with the United States took effect 1 January 2009, eliminated tariff barriers on all consumer and industrial products, and also provided strong protections for foreign businesses investing in Oman.[176] Tourism, another source of Oman's revenue, is on the rise.[177]

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Oman by country as of 2017[178]

  United Kingdom (48%)
  United Arab Emirates (10.8%)
  Kuwait (4.6%)
  Other (36.6%)

Oman's

foreign workers send an estimated US$10 billion annually to their home states in Asia and Africa, more than half of them earning a monthly wage of less than US$400.[179] The largest foreign community is from the Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat and the Punjab,[180] representing more than half of entire workforce in Oman. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be less than for Omani nationals, though still from two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India.[179]

In terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), total investments in 2017 exceeded US$24 billion. The highest share of FDI went to the oil and gas sector, which represented around US$13billion (54.2 percent), followed by financial intermediation, which represented US$3.66 billion (15.3 percent). FDI is dominated by the United Kingdom with an estimated value of US$11.56billion (48 percent), followed by the UAE US$2.6 billion (10.8 percent), followed by Kuwait US$1.1 billion (4.6 percent).[178]

Oman in 2018 had a budget deficit of 32 percent of total revenue and a government debt to GDP of 47.5 percent.[181][182] Oman's military spending to GDP between 2016 and 2018 averaged 10 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.[183] Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015 and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 10 percent.[184] Oman's research and development spending between 2016 and 2017 averaged 0.24 percent, which is significantly lower than the world's average (2.2 percent) during the same period.[185] Oman's government spending on education to GDP in 2016 was 6.11 percent, while the world's average was 4.8 percent (2015).[186]

Oman's Spending in 2016
Type Spending (% of GDP)[187][188][189][190]
Military spending
13.73
Education spending
6.11
Health spending
4.30
Research & Development spending
0.26

Oil and gas

Petrochemical tanks in Sohar

Oman's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, 25th largest in the world.[147] Oil is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining.[191][192] The Ministry of Energy and Minerals is responsible for all oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman.[193] Following the 1970s energy crisis, Oman doubled their oil output between 1979 and 1985.[194]

In 2018, oil and gas represented 71 percent of the government's revenues.[181] In 2016, oil and gas share of the government's revenue represented 72 percent.[195] The government's reliance on oil and gas as a source of income dropped by 1 percent from 2016 to 2018. Oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal GDP in 2017.[196]

Between 2000 and 2007, production fell by more than 26%, from 972,000 to 714,800

barrels per day.[197] Production has recovered to 816,000 barrels in 2009, and 930,000 barrels per day in 2012.[197] Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic metres, ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24 billion cubic metres per year.[147]

In September 2019, Oman was confirmed to become the first Middle Eastern country to host the International Gas Union Research Conference (IGRC 2020). This 16th iteration of the event will be held between 24 and 26 February 2020, in collaboration with Oman LNG, under the auspices of the Ministry of Energy and Minerals.[198]

Industry, innovation and infrastructure

In industry, innovation and infrastructure, Oman is still faced with "significant challenges", as per United Nations Sustainable Development Goals index, as of 2019. Oman has scored high on the rates of internet use, mobile broadband subscriptions, logistics performance and on the average of top 3 university rankings. Meanwhile, Oman scored low on the rate of scientific and technical publications and on research & development spending.[130] Oman's manufacturing value added to GDP rate in 2016 was 8.4 percent, which is lower than the average in the Arab world (9.8 percent) and world average (15.6 percent). In terms of research & development expenditures to GDP, Oman's share was on average 0.20 percent between 2011 and 2015, while the world's average during the same period was 2.11 percent.[199] The majority of firms in Oman operate in the oil and gas, construction and trade sectors.[200]

Non-hydrocarbon GDP growth 2015 2016 2017 2018
Value (%)[201] 4.8 6.2 0.5 1.5

Oman is refurbishing and expanding the ports infrastructure in Muscat, Duqm, Sohar and Salalah to expand tourism, local production and export shares. Oman is also expanding its downstream operations by constructing a refinery and petrochemical plant in Duqm with a 230,000 barrels per day capacity projected for completion by 2021.[178] The majority of industrial activity in Oman takes place in 8 industrial states and 4 free-zones. The industrial activity is mainly focused on mining-and-services, petrochemicals and construction materials.[200] The largest employers in the private-sector are the construction, wholesale-and-retail and manufacturing sectors, respectively. Construction accounts for nearly 48 percent of the total labour force, followed by wholesale-and-retail, which accounts for around 15 percent of total employment and manufacturing, which accounts for around 12 percent of employment in the private sector. The percentage of Omanis employed in the construction and manufacturing sectors is nevertheless low, as of 2011 statistics.[175]

Oman, as per

MENA region average was 1.50, while the 'high-income' countries' average was approximately 48.0 during the same year.[204] Oman was ranked 69th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[205]

Agriculture and fishing

Oman's fishing industry contributed 0.78 percent to the GDP in 2016. Fish exports between 2000 and 2016 grew from US$144 million to US$172 million (+19.4 percent). The main importer of Omani fish in 2016 was Vietnam, which imported almost US$80 million (46.5 percent) in value, and the second biggest importer was the United Arab Emirates, which imported around US$26 million (15 percent). The other main importers are Saudi Arabia, Brazil and China. Oman's consumption of fish is almost two times the world's average. The ratio of exported fish to total fish captured in tons fluctuated between 49 and 61 percent between 2006 and 2016. Omani strengths in the fishing industry comes from having a good market system, a long coastline (3,165 km) and wide water area. Oman, on the other hand, lacks sufficient infrastructure, research and development, quality and safety monitoring, together with a limited contribution by the fishing industry to GDP.[206]

Dates represent 80 percent of all fruit crop production. Further, date farms employ 50 percent of the total agricultural area in the country. Oman's estimated production of dates in 2016 is 350,000 tons, making it the 9th largest producer of dates. Oman's total export of dates was US$12.6 million in 2016, almost equivalent to Oman's total imported value of dates, which was US$11.3 million in 2016. The main importer is India (around 60 percent of all imports). Oman's date exports remained steady between 2006 and 2016. Oman is considered to have good infrastructure for date production and support provision to cultivation and marketing, but lacks innovation in farming and cultivation, industrial coordination in the supply chain and encounter high losses of unused dates.[206]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Oman
Al-Bustan Palace Hotel
Wahiba Sands

Tourism in Oman has grown considerably recently, and it is expected to be one of the largest industries in the country.[207] The World Travel & Tourism Council stated that Oman is the fastest growing tourism destination in the Middle East.[208]

Tourism contributed 2.8 percent to the Omani GDP in 2016. It grew from RO 505 million (US$1.3 billion) in 2009 to RO 719 million (US$1.8 billion) in 2017 (+42.3 percent growth). Citizens of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), including Omanis who are residing outside of Oman, represent the highest ratio of all tourists visiting Oman, estimated to be 48 percent. The second highest number of visitors come from other Asian countries, who account for 17 percent of the total number of visitors.

barrier-to-entry of private-sector actors and a crowding out effect. Another key issue to the tourism sector is deepening the understanding of the ecosystem and biodiversity in Oman to guarantee their protection and preservation.[200]

Oman has one of the most diverse environments in the Middle East with various tourist attractions and is particularly well known for adventure and cultural tourism.[177][209] Muscat, the capital of Oman, was named the second best city to visit in the world in 2012 by the travel guide publisher Lonely Planet.[210] Muscat also was chosen as the Capital of Arab Tourism of 2012.[211]

In November 2019, Oman made the rule of visa on arrival an exception and introduced the concept of e-visa for tourists from all nationalities. Under the new laws, visitors were required to apply for the visa in advance.[212]

Demographics

Main article:
Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital. Omanis are predominantly of Arab, Baluchi and African origins.[147] Around 20 percent of Omanis are of Baloch descent whose ancestors migrated to Oman centuries ago, and are now considered native.[215]

Omani society is largely

Persia and historical Omani Zanzibar.[219] Gwadar, a region of Balochistan, was a Colony of Oman for more than a century and in the 1960s, Pakistan took over the land. Many people in this area are Omani and Pakistani.[220]

Religion

Main articles: Islam in Oman and Religion in Oman

Religion in Oman (2020)[221]

  Islam (88.9%)
  Hinduism (5.5%)
  Christianity (3.6%)
  others (2.0%)

Even though the Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, statistics from the US's Central Intelligence Agency state that adherents of Islam are in the majority at 85.9 percent, while 6.4 percent are Christians, 5.7 percent Hindus, 0.8 percent Buddhists, and fewer than 0.1 percent are Jews; members of other religious affiliations comprise 1 percent and the unaffiliated 0.2 percent.

Most Omanis are

Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam
. Virtually all non-Muslims in Oman are foreign workers. Non-Muslim religious communities include various groups of
Protestant
congregations, organising along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than 50 different Christian groups, fellowships and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from Southeast Asia.

There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians. There are also a small Sikh[223] community.

Languages

Arabic and English road sign in Oman

dialects of Arabic spoken, all part of the Peninsular Arabic family: Dhofari Arabic (also known as Dhofari, Zofari) is spoken in Salalah and the surrounding coastal regions (the Dhofar Governorate);[224] Gulf Arabic is spoken in parts bordering the UAE; whereas Omani Arabic
, distinct from the Gulf Arabic of eastern Arabia and Bahrain, is spoken in Central Oman, although with recent oil wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the Sultanate.

According to the CIA, besides Arabic, English, Baluchi (Southern Baluchi),

Sindhi sailors.[225] Bengali is widely spoken due to a large Bangladeshi expatriate population. A significant number of residents also speak Urdu, due to the influx of Pakistani migrants during the late 1980s and 1990s. Additionally, Swahili is widely spoken in the country due to the historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar.[12]

Today the

Jibbali and Mehri.[228] Omani Sign Language
is the language of the deaf community.

Education

Main article: Education in Oman
Dhofar University in Salalah

Oman scored high as of 2019 on the percentage of students who complete lower secondary school and on the literacy rate between the age of 15 and 24, 99.7 percent and 98.7 percent, respectively. However, Oman's net primary school enrollment rate in 2019, which is 94.1 percent, is rated as "challenges remain" by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG) standard. Oman's overall evaluation in quality of education, according to UNSDG, is 94.8 ("challenges remain") as of 2019.[130]

Oman's higher education produces a surplus in humanities and liberal arts, while it produces an insufficient number in technical and scientific fields and required skill-sets to meet the market demand.[200] Further, sufficient human capital creates a business environment that can compete with, partner or attract foreign firms. Accreditation standards and mechanisms with a quality control that focuses on input assessments, rather than output, are areas of improvement in Oman, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2014 report.[200] The transformation Index BTI 2018 report on Oman recommends that the education curriculum should focus more on the "promotion of personal initiative and critical perspective".[174] Oman was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 80th in 2019.[229][230][231][232]

The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 86.9 percent.[233]

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Sultan Qaboos University (1678th worldwide), Dhofar University (6011th) and the University of Nizwa (6093rd).[234]

Healthcare

Main article: Healthcare in Oman

Since 2003, Oman's undernourished share of the population has dropped from 11.7 percent to 5.4 percent in 2016, but the rate remains high: double the level of high-income economies (2.7 percent) in 2016.[235] The UNSDG targets zero hunger by 2030.[236] Oman's coverage of essential health services in 2015 was 77 percent, which is relatively higher than the world's average of approximately 54 percent during the same year, but lower than high-income economies' level (83 percent) in 2015.[237]

Since 1995, the percentage of Omani children who receive key vaccines has consistently been very high (above 99 percent). As for road incident death rates, Oman's rate has been decreasing since 1990, from 98.9 per 100,000 individuals to 47.1 per 100,000 in 2017, however, the rate remains significantly above average, which was 15.8 per 100,000 in 2017.[238] Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015 and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period averaged 10 percent.[184]

As for mortality due to air pollution (household and ambient air pollution), Oman's rate was 53.9 per 100,000 population as of 2016.[239] However, in 2019 the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked Oman as the least polluted country in the Arab world, with a score of 37.7 in the pollution index. The country ranked 112th in Asia among the list of highest polluted countries.[240]

Life expectancy at birth in Oman was estimated to be 76.1 years in 2010.[241] As of 2010, there were an estimated 2.1 physicians and 2.1 hospital beds per 1,000 people.[241] In 1993, 89 percent of the population had access to health care services. In 2000, 99 percent of the population had access to health care services.[242] In 2000, Oman's health system was ranked number 8 by the World Health Organization.[243]

Largest cities

For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Oman.
 
 
Largest cities or towns in Oman
"Oman – 10 Largest Cities". geonames.org. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
Rank Name Governorate / Region Pop.
Seeb
 1
Muscat
 Muscat 797,000 Salalah
Salalah
Bawshar
Bawshar
2
Seeb
 Muscat 237,816
3 Salalah Dhofar 163,140
4 Bawshar Muscat 159,487
5 Sohar Al Batinah 108,274
6 Suwayq Al Batinah 107,143
7 Ibri
Az Zahirah
 101,640
8 Saham Al Batinah 89,327
9 Barka Al Batinah 81,647
10 Rustaq Al Batinah 79,383

Culture

Main article: Culture of Oman
The traditional dhow, an enduring symbol of Oman[244]

Outwardly, Oman shares many of the cultural characteristics of its Arab neighbours, particularly those in the Gulf Cooperation Council.[245] Despite these similarities, important factors make Oman unique in the Middle East.[245] These result as much from geography and history as from culture and economics.[245] The relatively recent and artificial nature of the state in Oman makes it difficult to describe a national culture;[245] however, sufficient cultural heterogeneity exists within its national boundaries to make Oman distinct from other Arab States of the Persian Gulf.[245] Oman's cultural diversity is greater than that of its Arab neighbours, given its historical expansion to the Swahili Coast and the Indian Ocean.[245]

Oman has a long tradition of shipbuilding, as maritime travel played a major role in the Omanis' ability to stay in contact with the civilisations of the ancient world. Sur was one of the most famous shipbuilding cities of the Indian Ocean. An al Ghanja ship takes one whole year to build. Other types of Omani ship include As Sunbouq and Al Badan.[246]

Dress

A khanjar, the traditional dagger of Oman (c. 1924)

The male

dishdasha, a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves.[247] Most frequently white in colour, the dishdasha may also appear in a variety of other colours. Its main adornment, a tassel (furakha) sewn into the neckline, can be impregnated with perfume.[248] Underneath the dishdasha, men wear a plain, wide strip of cloth wrapped around the body from the waist down. The most noted regional differences in dishdasha designs are the style with which they are embroidered, which varies according to age group.[247] On formal occasions a black or beige cloak called a bisht may cover the dishdasha. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and it is intricate in detail.[248]

Omani men wear two types of headdress:

Some men carry the assa, a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal events. Omani men, on the whole, wear sandals on their feet.[248]

The khanjar (dagger) forms part of the national dress and men wear the khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals.[247] It is traditionally worn at the waist. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or gold-decorated pieces.[248] A depiction of a khanjar appears on the national flag.[247]

Omani women wear eye-catching national costumes, with distinctive regional variations. All costumes incorporate vivid colours and vibrant embroidery and decorations. The Omani women's traditional costume comprises several garments: the kandoorah, which is a long tunic whose sleeves or radoon are adorned with hand-stitched embroidery of various designs. The dishdasha is worn over a pair of loose-fitting trousers, tight at the ankles, known as a sirwal. Women also wear a head shawl most commonly referred to as the lihaf.[249]

As of 2014 women reserve wearing their traditional dress for special occasions, and instead wear a loose black cloak called an abaya over their personal choice of clothing, whilst in some regions, particularly amongst the Bedouin, the burqa is still worn.[249] Women wear hijab, and though some women cover their faces and hands, most do not. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office.[244]

Music and cinema

Music of Oman is extremely diverse due to Oman's imperial legacy. There are over 130 different forms of traditional Omani songs and dances. The Oman Centre for Traditional Music was established in 1984 to preserve them.[250] In 1985, Sultan Qaboos founded the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra. Instead of engaging foreign musicians, he decided to establish an orchestra made up of Omanis.[251] On 1 July 1987 at the Al Bustan Palace Hotel's Oman Auditorium the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra gave its inaugural concert.[252] In popular music, a seven-minute music video about Oman went viral, achieving 500,000 views on YouTube within 10 days of being released on YouTube in November 2015. The a cappella production features three of the region's most popular talents: Kahliji musician Al Wasmi, Omani poet Mazin Al-Haddabi and actress Buthaina Al Raisi.[253]

Cinema in Sur

The cinema of Oman is very small, there being only one Omani film Al-Boom (2006) as of 2007. Oman Arab Cinema Company LLC is the single largest motion picture exhibitor chain in Oman.[254]

Media

Main article: Mass media in Oman

The government has continuously held a monopoly on television in Oman. Oman TV is the only state-owned national television channel broadcaster in Oman. Oman TV broadcasts four HD channels, including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live and Oman TV Cultural.[255] Although private ownership of radio and television stations is permitted, Oman has only one privately owned television channel.[256] Majan TV is the first private TV channel in Oman. It began broadcasting in January 2009. However, Majan TV's official channel website was last updated in early 2010.[257] The public has access to foreign broadcasts since the use of satellite receivers is allowed.[256][258]

Oman Radio is the first and only state-owned radio channel.[256] It began broadcasting on 30 July 1970.[259] It operates both Arabic and English networks. Other private channels include Hala FM, Hi FM, Al-Wisal, Virgin Radio Oman FM and Merge. In early 2018, Muscat Media Group (MMG) launched a new private radio station.[260][261][262]

Oman has nine main newspapers, five in Arabic and four in English.[263]

The media landscape in Oman has been continuously described as restrictive, censored, and subdued.[264] The Ministry of Information censors politically, culturally, or sexually offensive material in domestic or foreign media. The press freedom group Reporters Without Borders ranked the country 127th out of 180 countries on its 2018 World Press Freedom Index. In 2016, the government drew international criticism for suspending the newspaper Azamn and arresting three journalists after a report on corruption in the country's judiciary. Azamn was not allowed to reopen in 2017 although an appeal court ruled in late 2016 that the paper can resume operating.[265]

Art

Traditional art in Oman stems from its long heritage of material culture. Art movements in the 20th century reveal that the art scene in Oman began with early practices that included a range of tribal handicrafts and self-portraiture in painting since the 1960s.

Marrakesh and Haiti Ghetto biennale, Oman's position as a newcomer to the contemporary art scene in recent years has been more important for Oman's international exposure.[267]

Ancient irrigation system and water channels.[268] Aflaj Gallery, The National Museum of Oman.

Bait Muzna Gallery is the first art gallery in Oman. Established in 2000 by Sayyida Susan Al Said, Bait Muzna has served as a platform for emerging Omani artists to showcase their talent and place themselves on the wider art scene. In 2016, Bait Muzna opened a second space in Salalah to branch out and support art film and the digital art scene. The gallery has been primarily active as an art consultancy.[267][269] The Omani Society for Fine Arts, established in 1993, offers educational programmes, workshops and artist grants for practitioners across varied disciplines.[267]

The Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, the

Sultan Qaboos' Award for Architectural Excellence. Bait Al Zubair displays the family's collection of Omani artifacts.[270]

Omani cuisine

Main article: Omani cuisine
Traditional Omani food

Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures. Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During

Taraweeh
prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm.

Arsia, a festival meal served during celebrations, consists of mashed rice and meat (sometimes chicken). Another popular festival meal, shuwa, consists of meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to 2 days) in an underground clay oven. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the kingfish is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal consisting of a whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. Rukhal bread is a thin, round bread eaten at any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner. The Omani halwa is a very popular sweet, consisting of cooked raw sugar with nuts. There are many different flavors, the most popular ones being black halwa (original) and saffron halwa. Halwa is considered a symbol of Omani hospitality, traditionally served with coffee. As is the case with most Arab states of the Persian Gulf, alcohol is only available over the counter to non-Muslims.

Sports

Main article:
Sport in Oman
Oman hosted and won the 19th Arabian Gulf Cup

In October 2004, the Omani government set up a Ministry of Sports Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and Cultural Affairs. The

Muscat, from 4 to 17 January 2009 and was won by the Omani national football team. The 23rd Arabian Gulf Cup that took place in Kuwait, from 22 December 2017 until 5 January 2018 with Oman winning their second title, defeating the United Arab Emirates
in the final.

Oman's traditional sports are

UAE, are the only regions in the Middle East that have a variant of bullfighting, known as 'bull-butting', organised within their territories.[273]
Al-Batena area in Oman is specifically prominent for such events.

2010 FIFA World Cup Qualifiers Round 3 match between Oman and Japan at the Royal Oman Police Stadium on 7 June 2008 in Muscat, Oman

The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organising the highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports associations, clubs, and young participants. The football association took part, along with the handball, basketball, rugby union, field hockey, volleyball, athletics, swimming and tennis associations. In 2010 Muscat hosted the 2010 Asian Beach Games. Oman featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 AVC Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.[274]

Oman also hosts tennis tournaments each year. The

2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualifiers, where 11 teams competed for three spots at the FIFA World Cup. Oman hosted the Men's and Women's 2012 Beach Handball World Championships at the Millennium Resort in Mussanah, from 8 to 13 July.[275] The first "El Clasico" to be played outside of Spain, was played on 14 March 2014, at the Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex.[276]

Oman has competed repeatedly for a position in the FIFA World Cup, but have not yet qualified to compete in the tournament. In cricket, Oman qualified for the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 and the 2021 T20 Cricket World Cup. On 25 June 2021, it was confirmed that Oman will co-host the 2021 edition of the ICC Men's T20 World Cup alongside the United Arab Emirates.[277]

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and Oman.
  2. ^ Gwadar remained an Omani possession as part of the Sultanate until September 1958
  1. ^ For both Omani and foreign citizens.
  2. Arabic: عُمَان, [ʕʊˈmaːn]
  3. Arabic
    : سلْطنةُ عُمان Salṭanat(u) ʻUmān

References

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  3. ^ Oman. MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. In 751 Ibadi Muslims, established an imamate in Oman. Despite interruptions, the Ibadi imamate survived until the mid-20th century.
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  8. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Oman)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
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