Sumgait pogrom
Sumgait pogrom | |
---|---|
Part of Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, First Nagorno-Karabakh War and Dissolution of the Soviet Union | |
Location | Sumgait, Azerbaijan, Soviet Union |
Date | February 27 – March 1, 1988 |
Target | Local Armenian population |
Attack type | Murder, rape, riot[1] |
Deaths | 32 (official Soviet data) 200+ (Armenian sources)[2] |
Injured | Unknown |
The Sumgait pogrom
On February 28, a small contingent of
The violence in Sumgait was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western media. It was greeted with general surprise in Armenia and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic conflicts in the country had been largely suppressed by the
Because of the scale of atrocities against the Armenians as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the
Background
The city of Sumgait is located near the coast of the Caspian Sea, only thirty kilometers north of the capital Baku. It had been renovated in the 1960s and had become a leading industrial city, second after Baku by its industrial importance, with oil refineries and petrochemical plants built during that era. Its population in the 1960s stood at 60,000, but by the late 1980s it had grown to over 223,000 (with an Armenian population of about 17,000), and overcrowding among other social problems plagued the city. While there was a high rate of unemployment and poverty among the Azerbaijani residents, the Armenians comprised mainly the working and educated sector of the town's population.[12]
The political and economic reforms that General Secretary Gorbachev had initiated in 1985 saw a marked decentralization of Soviet authority. Armenians, in both Armenia proper and Nagorno-Karabakh, viewed Gorbachev's reform program as an opportunity to unite the two entities together. On February 20, 1988, tens of thousands of Armenians gathered to demonstrate in
Rallies and fuelling of anti-Armenian sentiments
The rallies in Armenia were countered by demonstrations in Baku, during which time strong anti-Armenian sentiments were voiced by citizens and officials alike. One such statement came on February 14, 1988, when the head of the department of
On February 26, several minor rallies were held at Lenin Square in Sumgait. Explicit calls for violence against Armenians and for their expulsion from Azerbaijan were heard and the crowds were agitated by news of Azerbaijani refugees who had fled Armenia (from the towns of
The demonstrations in the Lenin Square were concluded with strong anti-Armenian sentiments. During the demonstrations there were apparent threats and accusations against the Armenians for distorting the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. The Armenians were also blamed for being much better-off than most of the Azerbaijanis in Sumgait. Slogans such as "Death to Armenians" and "Armenians get out of our city" were being voiced.[18][19] There were also many public figures attending the rallies, among them the head of public school No. 25, an actress of the Arablinski theatre, Azerbaijani poet Khydyr Alovlu (a strong supporter of Heydar Aliyev) and others, who called for Armenians to be expelled from Azerbaijan or killed. Almost each speech was concluded with the slogan "Death to Armenians." Since the speakers used microphones these calls were heard not only in the square but also in the nearby streets.[18]
Efforts to calm the crowd were made by Azerbaijani figures such as secretary of the city party committee Bayramova and poet Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh, who addressed the crowd atop a platform. V. Huseinov, the director of the Institute of Political Education in Azerbaijan, also attempted to calm them by assuring them that Karabakh would remain within the republic and that the refugees' stories were false. He in turn was heckled with insults and forced to step down.[20] Jahangir Muslimzade, Sumgait's first secretary, spoke to the crowd, and told them to allow Armenians to leave of their own accord. But according to witnesses, this message served to agitate the crowd.[21] Shortly after his speech, at around 6:30 pm, Muslimzade was handed a flag of the Azerbaijan SSR and soon found himself leading the crowd. According to Muslimzade, he was attempting to lead the crowd away from the Armenian district and toward the sea, but many Armenians saw this act as implicating him as a leader of the riot. The crowd, in any case, dispersed and several groups made for the Armenian district.[22]
Radio broadcast
Another factor that may have ignited the violence was an announcement of the murder of two Azerbaijanis. On February 27, Soviet Deputy Federal Procurator, Aleksandr Katusev, announced on Baku Radio and Central Television, that two Azerbaijani youths, Bakhtiyar Guliyev and Ali Hajiyev, were killed in a clash between Armenians and Azerbaijanis near Aghdam several days earlier[14][23] One of the youths was killed by an Azerbaijani police officer, but Katusev neglected to mention that and would later receive a stinging rebuke for revealing the nationalities of the young men. The secretive nature the Soviet Union was still attempting to shake off led many Azerbaijanis to believe that there was something more nefarious to Katusev's report than he let on.[14]
Pogrom and atrocities
The pogrom of the Armenian population of Sumgait started on the evening of February 27, one week after the appeal of the Council of People's Deputies to unify Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia and according to many sources was a direct response to the council's decision.[5][24] The perpetrators targeted the victims based solely on ethnicity — being Armenian was the only criterion.[25][26][27] Some sources speak of premeditation ahead of the break-out of violence.[28][29] Cobbles were brought into the city to block and limit access and exit from the town; the perpetrators had previously obtained the list of addresses of the Armenian residents of the city.[30] Warnings by Azerbaijanis sympathetic to their Armenian neighbors instructed them to leave their lights on the night of the 27th; those who shut them off would be assumed to be Armenian. According to several Armenian witnesses and Soviet military personnel, alcohol and anasha, a term referring to narcotics, were brought in trucks and distributed to the crowds,[31] although such accounts were not reported in the media. According to de Waal, the fact that the attackers were armed with homemade weapons that would have taken some time and effort to manufacture suggests a certain level of planning.[32]
Violence broke on the evening of February 27. The attacking groups were of varying age groups. While the main participants were adult males and some women, there were also young students who took part in vandalizing and looting appliances, shoes, and clothing from the Armenians' homes.[3] The mobs entered the apartment buildings and sought out Armenians where they lived. Some took shelter among their Azerbaijani and Russian neighbors, who also risked being attacked by the mobs.[33] Others turned on the television to watch Azerbaijani music concerts and raised the volume to give the effect that they were in fact Azerbaijanis.
The pogrom was marked by atrocities and savagery. As de Waal describes it, "The roving gangs committed acts of horrific savagery. Several victims were so badly mutilated by axes that their bodies could not be identified. Women were stripped naked and set on fire. Several were raped repeatedly.”"[34] Numerous acts of gang rape and other sexual abuse were committed, taking place in both the apartments and publicly on the city streets. An account of one such act that was also corroborated by witnesses described how a crowd stripped naked an Armenian woman and dragged her through the streets.[35]
In the midst of the attacks, many Armenians sought to defend themselves and improvised by nailing their doors shut and arming themselves with axes, and in some instances a number of intruding rioters were killed.[31] Calls to ambulance services were handled late or in many cases, unheeded completely. There was no intervention on the part of the police to stop the perpetrators.[36][37][38] As mentioned by de Waal, "Another factor, which seems to have been a necessary condition for ethnic violence to begin, came into play: the local police did nothing. It later transpired that the local police force was overwhelmingly composed of Azerbaijanis and had only one professional Armenian officer."[39]
The weekly Moskovskiye Novosti later reported that eight of the city's twenty ambulances had been destroyed by the mobs.[40] Looting was prevalent and many attackers discussed among themselves on who would take possession of what after they had broken into the apartments. In some cases, televisions were stolen, along with other appliances and household goods; many apartments were vandalized and set on fire.[citation needed]
The lives of many Armenians were protected and saved by their Azerbaijani friends, neighbors or even strangers, who, at the risk of their own lives, let the Armenians hide in their houses or be escorted in their cars out of the city. According to Armenian witnesses, when Soviet troops went door-to-door searching for survivors, they managed to collect thousands of Armenians who had been hiding in Azeri households.[41]
Government reaction
The Soviet government's reaction to the riots was initially slow. Authorities were reluctant to send military units to impose
Meanwhile, on the previous day, two battalions from the
By February 29, the situation had worsened to the point where authorities were forced to call in more professional and heavily armed troops, who were given the right to use deadly force. A contingent made up of elements of the
A curfew was imposed from 8:00 pm to 7:00 am as skirmishes between troops and rioters continued. Krayev ordered troops to rescue Armenians left in their apartments. By the evening of the 29th,
Aftermath
By March 1, Soviet troops had effectively quelled the rioting. Investigations were slated to begin immediately; however, waste disposal trucks cleaned much of the debris on the streets before they arrived.
On April 28, 1988, images of the pogrom were broadcast in a 90-minute documentary by Soviet journalist Genrikh Borovik. Borovik criticized the media blackout imposed by the Soviet government, claiming that it ran against Gorbachev's aims of greater openness under glasnost.[54] Eduard Shevardnadze later remarked on the failure to report the massacre in Sumgait as a failure of glasnost itself: "the old mechanisms kicked in, simplifying, distorting or just eliminating the truth about [this event]."[55]
Criminal proceedings
Soviet authorities arrested 400 men in connection to the massacre and prepared criminal charges for 84 (82 Azerbaijanis, one Russian, and one Armenian).[56] Taleh Ismailov, a pipe-fitter from one of Sumgait's industrial plants, was charged with premeditated murder and was the first to be tried by the Soviet Supreme Court in Moscow in May 1988. By October 1988, nine men had been sentenced, including Ismailov, who was sentenced to 15 years in prison with a further 33 on trial.[57] Other sentences were more harsh: Ahmad Ahmadov was found guilty and sentenced to be shot by a firing squad for leading a mob and taking part in the murder of seven people.[58] However, 90 of those who were tried were set free after a relatively short time as they were sentenced for hooliganism, rather than for murder and violence.[59]
There were many who expressed their dissatisfaction with the way the trials were organized and conducted. Soviet historian and dissident Roy Medvedev questioned the trials: "Who knows why, but the court examined the Sumgait events by subdividing them into single episodes and not as a programmatic act of genocide."[60] Most Armenians and Azerbaijanis were also dissatisfied with the trials. Armenians complained that the true instigators of the pogrom were never caught whereas Azerbaijanis stated the sentences were too harsh and were upset with the fact that the trials were not held in Azerbaijan.[61] Some Azerbaijanis even went on to campaign for the "freedom for the heroes of Sumgait."[62]
Reactions
In Armenia and Karabakh
The pogrom was immediately linked to the
February 28 was designated as a public holiday in Armenia in 2005. It is officially known as "The Day of Memory of the Victims of Massacres in Azerbaijani SSR and Protection of the Rights of the Deported Armenian Population".[64]
International
In July 1988, within months of the Sumgait massacre, the United States Senate unanimously passed Amendment 2690 to the Fiscal Year 1989 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill (H.R. 4782), concerning the Karabakh conflict, which called on the Soviet government to "respect the legitimate aspirations of the Armenian people …" and noted that "dozens of Armenians have been killed and hundreds injured during the recent unrests…"[65][66]
On July 7, 1988, the European Parliament passed a resolution condemning the violence against Armenians in Azerbaijan.[67]
On July 27, 1990, 130 leading academics and human rights advocates wrote "An Open Letter to International Public Opinion on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union" published in the New York Times. The letter, which was signed by professors from Johns Hopkins, Princeton, Berkeley, UCLA, Wesleyan University, University of Paris IV Sorbonne and other universities, urged the international community to take action to protect the Armenian community in Azerbaijan.[68]
Conspiracy theories in Azerbaijan
Several
"Armenian provocation"
As early as mid-1988 Bill Keller wrote in the New York Times that "It is accepted wisdom among Sumgait's Azerbaijani majority that the riots Feb. 27, 28 and 29 were deliberately contrived by Armenian extremists in order to discredit Azerbaijan in the battle for the world's sympathy."[57] Historian and head of the Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences Ziya Bunyadov, whom Thomas de Waal calls "Azerbaijan's foremost Armenophobe",[69] claimed that the massacre had been instigated by the Armenians to cast a negative light upon Azerbaijan.[69] In an article that appeared in the Azerbaijani journal Elm, Bunyadov claimed that Armenians had organized the pogroms: "The Sumgait tragedy was carefully prepared by Armenian nationalists... Several hours after it began, Armenian photographers and TV journalists secretly entered the city where they awaited in readiness."[70] Bunyadov's thesis was hinged on the fact that Sumgait Armenians had withdrawn more than one million rubles from their savings before the attacks. To support his thesis, he had also drawn attention to the fact that one of the participants in the riots and killings was Eduard Grigorian, a man of mixed Russian-Armenian lineage who was freed after while later in Russia, and who had three previous criminal convictions and pretended to be Azerbaijani. Grigorian was a factory worker who took part in gang rapes and mass attacks and was subsequently sentenced to 12 years for his role in the massacres.[71] Grigorian had been brought up in Sumgait by his Russian mother following the early death of his Armenian father, and his ethnic identity is considered irrelevant since he appropriately fit the profile of a "pogromshchik, a thuggish young man, of indeterminate nationality with a criminal past, seeking violence for its own sake."[72] This view has since gained wider currency in all of Azerbaijan today, where it is still euphemistically referred to in the media and by government officials as the "Sumgait events" (Sumqayıt hadisələri).[73]
By 2018 the conspiracy theory was adopted by the government for the first time, according to journalist Shahin Rzayev. An investigation by the Prosecutor General's Office stated that "Armenians living in Sumgayit tried to provocatively burn down their homes and property and blame Azerbaijanis." According to their investigation a "diversion group" of 20–25 people who "weren’t residents of Sumgayit and were speaking in Armenian among themselves" instigated the attacks.[74]
This conspiracy theory, though discredited, is supported by Azerbaijan's president Aliyev: “I without reservation declare that the Sumgait events were carried out by Armenian nationalists and Armenian groups...The Sumgait events were used as to expand the black PR campaign against Azerbaijan, and as a result the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict happened.”[75]
Other theories
According to
Davud Imanov, an Azerbaijani filmmaker, expanded on this theory in a series of films called the Echo of Sumgait where he accused Armenians, Russians and
See also
- Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan
- Gugark pogrom (1988)
- Kirovabad pogrom (1988)
- Baku pogrom (1990)
- Operation Ring (1991)
- Maraga massacre (1992)
- Khojaly Massacre(1992)
- Siege of Stepanakert
Similar international events:
- Tulsa race massacre (1921)
- Gujarat riots (2002)
References
- ISBN 978-0-19539977-6.
- .
These events contributed to the anti-Armenian riots of February 28–29 in Sumgait near Baku. According to official data, 32 Armenians were killed during the riots, but various Armenian sources claimed that more than 200 people were killed.
- ^ a b Rodina. No. 4, 1994, pp. 82–90.
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- ^ a b Hovhannisyan, Mari (2010). "The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide". Budapest: Central European University. p. 21. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014.
The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.
- ^ Pheiffer, Evan (June 1, 2016). "A Place to Live For". Jacobin. Archived from the original on September 19, 2016.
Complicating matters, Armenians seem incapable of separating the 1988 pogroms from the 1915 Ottoman atrocities — mention of one immediately triggers talk of the other.
- ^ Glasnost: Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, NY) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union
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Рабочие Сумгаита говорили о странных, "нездешнего вида" молодых мужчинах, которые заводили толпу. Что это за "нездешнего вида" мужчины, были ли они в действительности или это – плод воображения, – на эти вопросы я не знал ответа тогда, не знаю и сейчас, по прошествии более чем десяти лет.
- ^ Thomas De Waal Ch. 2, p. 31
- ^ a b "Мятежный Карабах". www.armenianhouse.org. Archived from the original on August 9, 2012. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
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- ^ De Waal "Black Garden"
- ^ Session of Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, February 29, 1988. "ЗАСЕДАНИЕ ПОЛИТБЮРО ЦК КПСС (29 февраля 1988 года)". Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
- ^ "Sumgait: Evidence given by witnesses and relatives of victims of pogroms". Viktoria Grigoryan, sister of murdered Seda Danielyan: "Somebody knocked on the door and asked: "Are you Armenians?" My sister's husband answered: "No, we are Azeris", and they left." Danielyan Vitaliy, son of killed Nikolay and Seda Danielyans: "They entered the house and started to raid the flat. Then they took the parents’ passports and read a few words. One of them read out in good Russian "Danielyan", stressing "yan" turned the page, it said "Armenian". And he says: "Ok, this is enough". Then they started to shout that they had come to drink blood..." ""Sumgait": Evidence given by witnesses and relatives of victims of pogroms | KarabakhRecords". Archived from the original on February 15, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
- ^ Zverev Alexandr. Ethnic conflicts in the Caucasus 1988–1994. In Coppieters Bruno (ed.) Contested borders in the Caucasus. Brussels: Vubpress, 1996. pp. 13–71.
- ^ Rieff David Nagorno Karabakh: case study in ethnic strife. Foreign Affairs, vol. 76 (2) Mar.-Apr. 1997, pp. 118–132.
- ^ Excerpt from the indictment in the criminal case 18/60233 on charges of Ahmad Imani ogly Ahmаdov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov. Moscow, Nov. 1988, The Supreme Court of USSR. "I reckon they knew the addresses of the Armenians in advance. I came to this conclusion because the pogrom-makers were entering precisely the buildings were Armenians lived. In reality, they knew all the addresses, they were acting unmistakably. And all that was not out of hooligan intentions, that was an action specifically against the Armenian people, against Armenians. Not against Russians or other nations, but against Armenians. They were looking particularly for Armenians..."
- ^ a b Shahmuratian 1990.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Shahmuratian 1990, pp. 56–60.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 34.
- ^ Shahmuratian 1990, p. 227.
- ^ Sumgait: testimony of eyewitnesses. video: 01.13. "I personally saw the local police was standing there, doing nothing, as if it were there to help the rioters. There was no official announcement.""Сумгаит: рассказы очевидцев | KarabakhRecords". Archived from the original on February 17, 2013. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
- ^ Fragment from the indictment on criminal case 18/60233 on accusation of Akhmed Imani ogly Akhmedov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov, and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov: "Answering the question of lawyer Shaposhnikova "Why did you not call your father, who was in service then, to tell him about what was happening in your block?", witness D. Zarbaliev (the witness’ father worked in the militia in Sumgait) said:"And why did I need to call? The militia knew about it; everybody knew about it. It was not the first day of the pogroms".
- ^ in Russian Zardusht Ali-Zade. Azerbaijani Elit and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (article-memoir on turbulent times)."Азербайджан и Россия. Общества и государства". Archived from the original on October 30, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
- ^ De Waal. Black Garden, p. 33
- ^ "Сумгаит, Один месяц поздно [Sumgait, One Month Later]". Moskovskiye Novosti (in Russian). April 13, 1988.
- ^ Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope. Berkeley: University of California Press; pp. 46–47.
- ^ "Soviets Impose Curfew After Riots Archived March 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine." Newsday. March 2, 1988 p. 13. Retrieved December 30, 2006.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 38-39.
- ^ Kaufman 2001, p. 64.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 37-38.
- ^ Shahmuratian 1990, p. 199.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 39.
- Seattle Times. March 11, 1988. p. B1. Retrieved September 15, 2006.
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- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 40.
- ^ Malkasian 1996, p. 54.
- ^ Keller, Bill (August 31, 1988). "Riot's Legacy of Distrust Quietly Stalks a Soviet City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 3, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
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- ^ De Waal 2003, pp. 39, 43.
- ^ a b Keller, Bill (August 31, 1988). "Riot's Legacy of Distrust Quietly Stalks a Soviet City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 3, 2017.
- ^ "Soviet Riot Leader Sentenced to Death Archived September 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine." The Washington Post. November 20, 1988. Retrieved April 19, 2007.
- ^ Виктор Кривопусков: Преступники в Азербайджане возносятся в ранг национальных героев (in Russian). REGNUM News Agency. February 28, 2009. Archived from the original on November 16, 2014.
- ^ Medvedev. Time of Change, p. 209.
- ^ Kaufman 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Kaufman 2001, pp. 67, 205.
- ^ Malkasian 1996, p. 68.
- ^ «Հայաստանի Հանրապետության տոների և հիշատակի օրերի մասին» Հայաստանի Հանրապետության օրենքում լրացում կատարելու մասին. parliament.am (in Armenian). National Assembly of Armenia. Archived from the original on November 16, 2014.
- ^ "More Members of Congress Commemorate Sumgait, Baku Massacres". Asbarez News. March 3, 2011. Archived from the original on April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
- ^ "Senate Joint Resolution 4, March 1, 2013" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2013. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ "RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia. Joint resolution replacing Docs. B2-538 and 587 88, 07 July 1988. Source: Official journal of the European Communities, No. C 94/117, o C 235/106, 07 July 1988" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 23, 2014. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ Gluecksmann, Andre; Zelnick, Reginald E.; Wiehl, Reiner; Taylor, Charles; Shestack, Jerome J.; Ricoeur, Paul; Poulain, Jacques; Levinas, Emmanuel; Hooks, Benjamin L.; Heller, Agnes; Gregorian, Vartan; Gadamer, Hans-Georg; Ferry, Luc; Chace, William M.; Aaron, David; Putnam, Hilary; Kołakowski, Leszek; Habermas, Juergen; Lyttelton, Adrian; Rorty, Richard; Finkielkraut, Alain; Berlin, Isaiah; Derrida, Jacques (September 27, 1990). "An Open Letter on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union by Jacques Derrida, Isaiah Berlin, and Alain Finkielkraut – The New York Review of Books". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
- ^ a b c De Waal 2003, p. 42.
- ISBN 1-85649-288-5.
- ^ De Waal 2003, pp. 42–43.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 43.
- ^ See, for example, Jamil Babayeva, "Armenia's provocation: Sumgayit events Archived March 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. AzerNews." February 28, 2014; "Sumgait's events committed by special services and Armenian diaspora Archived March 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine." Trend. February 27, 2014.
- EurasiaNet. Archivedfrom the original on March 8, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
- ^ "Armenian and Azerbaijani leaders embrace denialism | Eurasianet". Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- Yakovlev, Alexander N.(2003). Сумерки [Time of darkness] (in Russian). Moscow: Materik. p. 551.
- ^ Soros, George (June 1, 1989). "The Gorbachev Prospect". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on September 12, 2017.
- ISBN 9780521528511.
- ^ Սումգայիթի ջարդը՝ ՊԱԿ–ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր. amerikayidzayn.com (in Armenian). Voice of America. February 27, 2015. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
- ^ Mkhitaryan, Inesa (February 27, 2015). Ըստ Փոլ Գոբլի՝ Սումգայիթի ջարդը ՊԱԿ-ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր. azatutyun.am (in Armenian). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on March 1, 2015.
Notes
- ^ Armenian: Սումգայիթի ջարդեր, Sumgayit'i jarder lit.: "Sumgait massacres"; Azerbaijani: Sumqayıt hadisələri lit.: "Sumgait events"; Russian: Сумгаитский погром, Sumgaitskij pogrom
Bibliography
- ISBN 9780814719459.
- Ismayilov, Aslan (2010). Sumgayit—Beginning of the Collapse of the USSR (PDF). Translated by Vagif Ismayil and Vusal Kazimli. Baku: Çaşıoğlu. OCLC 909344127.
- Kaufman, Stuart J. (2001). Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8736-6.
- Malkasian, Mark (1996). "Gha-Ra-Bagh"! The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2605-6.
- Shahmuratian, Samvel (1990). The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan. New Rochelle, NY; Cambridge, Mass.: Zoryan Institute.
External links
- sumqayit1988.com
- sumqait.com
- Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (I)
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