Sundarbans
Sundarbans | |
---|---|
Brahmaputra delta | |
Location | Khulna Division, Bangladesh Presidency division, West Bengal, India |
Nearest city | Basirhat, Diamond Harbour, Haldia, Khulna, Kolkata, Bagerhat, Patuakhali, Barguna, Satkhira, |
Coordinates | 21°43′59″N 88°52′08″E / 21.73318765°N 88.86896612°E |
Governing body | Government of Bangladesh (66%), Government of India (34%) |
Official name | The Sundarbans |
Location | Khulna Division, Bangladesh |
Includes |
|
Criteria | Natural: (ix)(x) |
Reference | 798 |
Inscription | 1997 (21st Session) |
Area | 139,500 ha (539 sq mi) |
Coordinates | 21°57′N 89°11′E / 21.950°N 89.183°E |
Official name | Sundarbans Reserved Forest |
Designated | 21 May 1992 |
Reference no. | 560[1] |
Official name | Sundarban Wetland |
Designated | 30 January 2019 |
Reference no. | 2370[2] |
Official name | Sundarbans National Park |
Location | Presidency division, West Bengal, India |
Includes | |
Criteria | Natural: (ix)(x) |
Reference | 452 |
Inscription | 1987 (11th Session) |
Area | 133,010 ha (513.6 sq mi) |
Coordinates | 21°56′42″N 88°53′45″E / 21.94500°N 88.89583°E |
Sundarbans (pronounced
Despite the protected status, the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in a 2020 assessment under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework.[5] The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi), of which forests in Bangladesh's Khulna Division extend over 6,517 km2 (2,516 sq mi) and in West Bengal, they extend over 3,483 km2 (1,345 sq mi) across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts.[6] The most abundant tree species are sundri (Heritiera fomes) and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha). The forests provide habitat to 453 fauna wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species.[7] Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there has been a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century, with the ecological quality of the forest declining.[8]
Despite preservation commitments from both governments, the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human-made causes. In 2007, the landfall of
Etymology
The literal meaning of Sundarbans (
History
The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to
Geography
The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the
The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, chital, crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Khulna and Port of Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones. It also protects from tsunami and soil erosion for the coastal population.[20]
Physiography
The mangrove-dominated
The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level.[22]
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for
Ecoregions
Sundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406).[24]
Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests
The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a
A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by
Sundarbans Mangroves
The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the
Ecological succession
Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities.[28] In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone.[29] Robert Scott Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is Sonneratia, followed by Avicennia and Nypa. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear.[30]
Flora
A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903.[31] While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae.[18]
The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari (
The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub,
Fauna
The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks, were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps, an improved methodology that yields more accurate results.[33][34][35] Tiger attacks were historically common in the area, and are still frequent in the Sundarbans, with around 40 people killed in 2000–2010.[36]
Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as
The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of
Mammals
The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris).[42] The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat (Felis chaus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), and leopard cat (P. bengalensis).[43]
Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the
Endangered and extinct species
Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari (
The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Bengal tiger,
Climate change impact
The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the
In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring
In a study conducted in 2012, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres (660 ft) in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17,179 hectares (42,450 acres) of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7,554 hectares (18,670 acres).
Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated the annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres (0.31 in) in 2010. It had doubled from 3.14 millimetres (0.124 in) recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7,500 hectares (19,000 acres) of forest areas. This, coupled with an around 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction.
Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with the same.[49][self-published source?][50][self-published source?][51] This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010.[52]
A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heidelberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing the flight of human capital from the region[52][53]
Hazards
Natural hazards
According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007.[54]
Human made hazards
In August 2010, a memorandum of understanding was signed between
On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named Southern Star VII,
Economy
The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of
The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total
Agriculture
Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop (kharif crop) is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However, the lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops (Rabi crops) can be grown here.[73]
Habitation
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million[74] but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980.
Administration
The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing.[citation needed] As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways.
The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The
The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the
A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks.
Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban.[75]
Protected areas
The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini (Satkhira District) and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks.[13] There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas.
Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including
In May 2019, the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell.
Sundarban National Park
The Sundarban National Park is a
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa (
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 31,227 hectares (77,160 acres) in Bangladesh. Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Aglaia cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran (Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) is widespread along drainage lines.
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 36,970 hectares (91,400 acres) in Bangladesh. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran (Ceriops tagal) and sometimes Passur.
Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary
Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a 362-square-kilometre (140 sq mi) area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in
In popular culture
The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like
The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g. The Mystery of the Black Jungle). Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize winning novel Midnight's Children is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of Kunal Basu's short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent film adaptation. Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel, The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans. The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption".[77] Manik Bandopadhyay's Padma Nadir Majhi was made into a movie by Goutam Ghose.
The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans,
See also
- Sundarbans Tiger Project
- Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
- Sangu Wildlife Sanctuary
- Environmental impact of development in the Sundarbans
- Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans
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- Jalais, Annu. (2010). "Braving Crocodiles with Kali: Being a prawn-seed collector and a modern woman in the 21st century Sundarbans", Socio-Legal Review, Vol. 6.
- Montgomery, Sy (1995). Spell of the Tiger: The Man-Eaters of Sundarbans. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
- Rivers of Life: Living with Floods in Bangladesh. M. Q. Zaman. Asian Survey, Vol. 33, No. 10 (October 1993), pp. 985–996
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- Sundarbans on United Nations Environment Programme
- Brammer, H. (July 1990). "Floods in Bangladesh: II. Flood Mitigation and Environmental Aspects". The Geographical Journal. 156 (2): 158–165. JSTOR 635323.
- Environmental classification of mangrove wetlands of India Archived 1 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine. V. Selvam. Current Science, Vol. 84, No. 6, 25 March 2003.
- Green, M.J.B.; Centre, W.C.M.; Parks, I.C.o.N.; Areas, P. (1990). Iucn Directory of South Asian Protected Areas. IUCN-The World Conservation Union. ISBN 978-2-8317-0030-4.
External links
- Sundarbans travel guide from Wikivoyage
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre: The Sundarbans
- UNESCO: Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Information
- World Heritage Site: The Sundarbans
- United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Programme: The Sundarbans
- The Sundarban of Bangladesh: A Rich Biodiversity of the World's Largest Mangrove Ecosystem
- Greenpeace: Sinking Sundarbans – Climate voices
- Tiger Conservation Project in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans Archived 6 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Research on water management and control in the Sunderbans, West Bengal, India
- Finfishes of Sundarbans
- Nasa images: set 01 and set 2