Sunni Islam

Edit links
Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Sunni Muslims
)

Part of a series on
Sunni Islam
Beliefs
Five Pillars
Rightly-Guided Caliphs
Sunni schools of law

Others

  • Zahiri
  • Awza'i
  • Thawri
  • Laythi
  • Jariri
Sunni schools of theology

In terms of Ihsan:

Contemporary movements
Holy sites
Lists
 Islam portal
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics

Sunni Islam (

caliph).[3][4][5] This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor.[6]

The adherents of Sunni Islam are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah ("the people of the Sunnah and the community") or ahl as-Sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism,[7] while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites and Ahlus Sunnah. Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",[8][9][10] though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many Sunnis may find this offensive.[11]

The

tabi'in and tabi al-tabi'in as the salaf
.

Terminology

Sunna

The Arabic term sunna, according to which Sunnis are named, is old and roots in pre-Islamic language. It was used for traditions which a majority of people followed.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and acknowledge their priority (Fadā'il). A disciple of Masrūq, the scholar ash-Shaʿbī (d. between 721 und 729), who first sided with the Shia in Kufa during Civil War, but turned away in disgust by their fanaticism and finally decided to join the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik, popularized the concept of Sunnah.[15] It is also passed down by asch-Shaʿbī, that he took offensive at the hatred on ʿĀʾiša bint Abī Bakr and considered it a violation of the Sunnah.[16]

The term Sunna instead of the longer expression ahl as-sunna or ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah as a group-name for Sunnis is a relatively young phenomenon. It was probably

Ibn Taymiyyah, who used the short-term for the first time.[17] It was later popularized by pan-Islamic scholars such as Muhammad Rashid Rida in his treatise as-Sunna wa-š-šiʿa au al-Wahhābīya wa-r-Rāfiḍa: Ḥaqāʾiq dīnīya taʾrīḫīya iǧtimaʿīya iṣlaḥīya ("The Sunna and the Shia, Or Wahhabism and Rāfidism: Religious history, sociological und reform oriented facts") published in 1928–29.[18] The term "Sunnah" is usually used in Arabic discourse as designation for Sunni Muslims, when they are intended to be contrasted with Shias. The word pair "Sunnah-Shia" is also used on Western research literature to denote the Sunni-Shia contrast.[19]

Ahl as-Sunna

One of the earliest supporting documents for ahl as-sunna derives from the Basric scholar Muhammad Ibn Siri (d. 728). His is mentioned in the Sahih of

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, but the second Civil War (680–692)[21] in which the Islamic community was split into four parties (Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the Umayyads, the Shia under al-Mukhtār ibn Abī ʿUbaid and the Kharijites). The term ahl as-sunna designated in this situation whose, who stayed away from heretic teachings of the different warring parties.[22]

The term ahl as-sunna was always a laudatory designation.

Samanides, used sometimes one expression and sometimes another for his own group.[25]

Singular to ahl as-sunna was ṣāḥib sunna (adherent to the sunnah).

Mutazilites, Murjites, Shites, Kharijites.[29]
The Muʿtazilites replaced the Qadarites here.

In the 9th century, one started to extent the term ahl as-sunna with further positive additions. Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari used for his own group expressions like ahl as-sunna wa-l-istiqāma ("people of Sunna and Straightness"), ahl as-sunna wa-l-ḥadīṯ ("people of Sunnah and of the Hadith")[30] or ahl al-ḥaqq wa-s-sunna[31] ("people of Truth and of the Sunnah").

Ahl as-Sunna wa l-Jamāʻah

When the expression 'ahl as-sunna wa l-jama'ah appeared for the first time, is not entirely clear. The Abbasite Caliph

Al-Ma'mūn (reigned 813–33) criticized in his Mihna edict a group of people, who related themselves to the sunnah (nasabū anfusa-hum ilā s-sunna) and claimed, they are the "people of truth, religion and community" (ahl al-ḥaqq wa-d-dīn wa-l-jamāʿah).[32] Sunna and jamāʿah are already connected here. As a pair, these terms already appear in the 9th century. It is recorded that the disciple of Ahmad ibn Hanbal Harb ibn Ismail as-Sirjdshani (d. 893) created a writing with the title as-Sunna wa l-Jamāʿah, to which the Mutazilite Abu al-Qasim al-Balchi wrote a refutation later.[33] Al-Jubba'i (d. 916) tells in his Kitāb al-Maqālāt, that Ahmad ibn Hanbal attributed to his students the predicate sunnī jamāʿah ("Jammatic Sunnite").[34] This indicates that the Hanbalis were the first to use the phrase ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah as a self-designation.[35]

The Karramiyya founded by Muhammad ibn Karram (d. 859) referred to the sunnah and community. They passed down in praise of their school founder a hadith, according to which Muhammad predicted that at the end of times a man named Muhammad ibn Karram will appear, who will restore the sunna and the community (as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah) and take Hidraj from Chorasan to Jerusalem, just how Muhammad himself took a Hidraj from Mecca to Medina.[35] According to the testimony of the transoxanian scholar Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi (d. 1099) the Kullabites (followers of the Basrian scholar Ibn Kullab (d. 855)) dayed about themselves, that they are among the ahl as-sunna wa l-jama too.[36]

Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari used the expression ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah rarely,[37] and preferred another combination. Later Asharites like al-Isfaranini (d. 1027) nad Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi (d. 1078) used the expression ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah too and used them in their works to designate the teachings of their own school.[38] According to al-Bazdawi all Asharites in his time said they belong to the ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah.[36] During this time, the term has been used as a self-designation by the hanafite Maturidites in Transoxiania, used frequently by Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi (d. 983), Abu Schakur as-Salimi (d. 1086) and al-Bazdawi himself.[25] They used the term as a contrast from their enemies[39] among them Hanafites in the West, who have been followers of the Mutazilites.[40] Al-Bazdawī also contrasted the Ahl as-Sunnah wa l-Jamāʻah with Ahl al-Ḥadīth, "because they would adhere to teachings contrary to the Quran".[41]

According to

Schams ad-Dīn al-Maqdisī (end of the 10th century) was the expression ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah a laudatory term during his time, similar to ahl al-ʿadl wa-t-tawḥīd ("people of Righteousness and Divine Unity"), which was used for Mutazilites or generally designations like Mu'minūn ("Believer") or aṣḥāb al-hudā ("people of guidance") for Muslims, who has been seen as rightoues believers.[42] Since the expression ahl as-sunna wa l-jamāʿah was used with a demand on rightoues belief, it was used in academic researches translated as "orthodox".[43]

There are different opinions regarding what the term jama in the phrase ahl as-sunna wa l-jama actually means, among Muslim scholars. In the Sunni Creed by

Sahaba" (ṭarīqat aṣ-ṣaḥāba).[48] The modern Indonesian theologican Nurcholish Madjid (d. 2005) interpreted jama as an inclusivistic concept: It means a society open for pluralism and dialogue but does not emphasize that much.[49]

History

The Kaaba mosque in Mecca is the largest and most important mosque in the world.

One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammad's death, and that

Shi'ism developed out of Sunni Islam.[50] This perception is partly due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works, and also because the vast majority of the population is Sunni. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of several centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines.[51]

The first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the

caliph, though they did not include anyone in the list of the rightly guided ones or Rāshidun after the murder of Ali, until the caliphate was constitutionally abolished in Turkey
on 3 March 1924.

Transition of caliphate into dynastic monarchy of Banu Umayya

The seeds of metamorphosis of caliphate into kingship were sown, as the second caliph Umar had feared, as early as the regime of the third caliph Uthman, who appointed many of his kinsmen from his clan

Banu Abbās.[56][57][58][59]

Caliphate and the dynastic monarchy of Banu Abbās

The rule of and "caliphate" of Banu Umayya came to an end at the hands of Banu Abbās a branch of Banu Hāshim, the tribe of Muhammad, only to usher another dynastic monarchy styled as caliphate from 750 CE. This period is seen formative in Sunni Islam as the founders of the four schools viz,

Jafar al Sādiq who elaborated the doctrine of imāmate, the basis for the Shi'a religious thought. There was no clearly accepted formula for determining succession in the Abbasid caliphate. Two or three sons or other relatives of the dying caliph emerged as candidates to the throne, each supported by his own party of supporters. A trial of strength ensued and the most powerful party won and expected favours of the caliph they supported once he ascended the throne. The caliphate of this dynasty ended with the death of the Caliph al-Ma'mun in 833 CE, when the period of Turkish domination began.[60]

Sunni Islam in the contemporary era

Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, Indonesia.

The fall, at the end of

9/11, perpetrated by Osama bin Laden – a Saudi national by birth and harboured by the Taliban – took place, resulting in a war on terror launched against the Taliban.[65][66][67]

The sequence of events of the 20th century has led to resentment in some quarters of the Sunni community due to the loss of pre-eminence in several previously Sunni-dominated regions such as the

ISIL, whose leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi is known among his followers as caliph and Amir-al-mu'mineen, "The Commander of the Faithful".[69] Jihadism is opposed from within the Muslim community (known as the ummah in Arabic) in all quarters of the world as evidenced by turnout of almost 2% of the Muslim population in London protesting against ISIL.[70]

Following the puritan approach of

Biblical material (Isrā'iliyyāt). Half of the Arab commentaries reject Isrā'iliyyāt in general, while Turkish tafsir usually partly allow referring to Biblical material. Nevertheless, most non-Arabic commentators regard them as useless or not applicable.[71] A direct reference to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict could not be found. It remains unclear whether the refusal of Isrā'iliyyāt is motivated by political discourse or by traditionalist thought alone.[71] The usage of tafsir'ilmi is another notable characteristic of modern Sunni tafsir. Tafsir'ilmi stands for alleged scientific miracles found in the Qur'an. In short, the idea is that the Qur'an contains knowledge about subjects an author of the 7th century could not possibly have. Such interpretations are popular among many commentators. Some scholars, such as the Commentators of Al-Azhar University, reject this approach, arguing the Qur'an is a text for religious guidance, not for science and scientific theories that may be disproved later; thus tafsir'ilmi might lead to interpreting Qur'anic passages as falsehoods.[72] Modern trends of Islamic interpretation are usually seen as adjusting to a modern audience and purifying Islam from alleged alterings, some of which are believed to be intentional corruptions brought into Islam to undermine and corrupt its message.[71]

Adherents

Ibadi

Sunnis believe the

true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Qur'an
.

Sunni Islam does not have a formal hierarchy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law (sharia) or Islamic theology (Kalām). Both religious and political leadership are in principle open to all Muslims.[76] According to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a well-educated person to lead the service, known as a Khateeb (one who speaks).[77]

A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011[78] found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, and it is estimated over 85–90% are Sunni.[79]

Three group doctrines

Regarding the question which dogmatic tendencies are to be assigned to Sunnism, there is no agreement among Muslim scholars. Since the early modern period, is the idea that a total of three groups belong to the Sunnis: 1. those named after

Salafiyya, but also used Athariyya as an alternative term. For the Maturidiyya he gives Nasafīyya as a possible alternative name.[81] Another used for the traditionalist-oriented group is "people of Hadith" (ahl al-ḥadīṯ). It is used, for example, in the final document of the Grozny Conference. Only those "people of the Hadith" are assigned to Sunnism who practice tafwīḍ, i.e. who refrain from interpreting the ambiguous statements of the Quran.[82]

Ash'ari

Main article:
Ash'ari

Founded by

Muslim scholars and developed in parts of the Islamic world throughout history; al-Ghazali wrote on the creed discussing it and agreeing upon some of its principles.[83]

Ash'ari theology stresses

divine revelation over human reason. Contrary to the Mu'tazilites, they say that ethics cannot be derived from human reason, but that God's commands, as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah (the practices of Muhammad and his companions as recorded in the traditions, or hadith
), are the sole source of all morality and ethics.

Regarding the

Mu'tazili position that all Quranic references to God as having real attributes were metaphorical. The Ash'aris insisted that these attributes were as they "best befit His Majesty". The Arabic language is a wide language in which one word can have 15 different meanings, so the Ash'aris endeavor to find the meaning that best befits God and is not contradicted by the Quran. Therefore, when God states in the Quran, "He who does not resemble any of His creation", this clearly means that God cannot be attributed with body parts because He created body parts. Ash'aris tend to stress divine omnipotence
over human free will and they believe that the Quran is eternal and uncreated.

Maturidi

Part of a series on
Maturidism
Mausoleum of Imam al-Maturidi in Samarkand
Background
Eminent scholars
Theological works
Institutions
Events
Related groups
Classic
Modern
  • Deobandis
  • Barelwis
Main article:
Maturidi

Founded by

Maturidi creed.[88][89]

Athari

Main article:
Athari

Traditionalist or Athari theology is a movement of

several other names
.

Adherents of traditionalist theology believe that the

Bi-la kaifa
".

Traditionalist theology emerged among scholars of hadith who eventually coalesced into a movement called

Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most tenets of the traditionalist doctrine.[94][95] Although the mainly Hanbali scholars who rejected this synthesis were in the minority, their emotive, narrative-based approach to faith remained influential among the urban masses in some areas, particularly in Abbasid Baghdad.[96]

While

Hanbali school of law.[98]

Narrow definition

There were also Muslim scholars who wanted to limit the Sunni term to the

Māturīdites alone. For example, Murtadā az-Zabīdī (d. 1790) wrote in his commentary on al-Ghazalis "Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn": "When (sc. The term)" ahl as-sunna wal jamaʿa is used, the Ashʿarites and Māturīdites are meant.[48] This position was also taken over by the Egyptian Fatwa Office in July 2013.[99] In Ottoman times, many efforts were made to establish a good harmony between the teachings of the Ashʿarīya and the Māturīdīya.[99] Finally, there were also scholars who regarded the Ashʿarites alone as Sunnis. For example, the Moroccan Sufi Ahmad ibn ʿAdschiba (d. 1809) stated in his commentary on Fatiha: "As far as the Sunnis are concerned, it is the Ashʿarites and those who follow in their correct belief."[100]

Conversely, there were also scholars who excluded the Ashʿarites from Sunnism. The Andalusian scholar

Ash'aris from Sunni Islam. He believed that despite that their fundamental differences from Atharis, not every Ash'ari is to be excluded from Ahl al-Sunna wal Jama'ah, unless they openly disapprove of the doctrines of the Salaf (mad'hab as-Salaf). According to Albani:

"I do not share [the view of] some of the noble scholars of the past and present that we say about a group from the [many] Islamic groups that it is not from Ahlus-Sunnah due to its deviation in one issue or another... as for whether the Ash’aris or the Maaturidis are from Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jamaa’ah, I say that they are from Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jamaa’ah in many things related to aqidah but in other aqidah issues they have deviated away from Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jamaa’ah.. I don't hold that we should say that they are not from Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jamaa’ah whatsoever"[102]

Sunnism in general and in a specific sense

The

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān). In his opinion, this includes all Islamic groups except the Shiite Rafidites. Sunnis in the special sense are only the "people of the hadith" (ahl al-ḥadīṯ).[103]

İsmail Hakkı İzmirli, who took over the distinction between a broader and narrower circle of Sunnis from Ibn Taimiya, said that

Muhammad Ibn al-ʿUthaimin (d. 2001), who like Ibn Taimiya differentiated between Sunnis in general and special senses, also excluded the Asharites from the circle of Sunnis in the special sense and took the view that only the pious ancestors (as-salaf aṣ-ṣāliḥ) who have agreed on the Sunnah belonged to this circle.[104]

Classification of the Muʿtazila

The

Muʿtazilites are usually not regarded as Sunnis. Ibn Hazm, for example, contrasted them with the Sunnis as a separate group in his heresiographic work al-Faṣl fi-l-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-n-niḥal.[101] In many medieval texts from the Islamic East, the Ahl as-Sunna are also differentiated to the Muʿtazilites.[105] In 2010 the Jordanian fatwa office ruled out in a fatwa that the Muʿtazilites, like the Kharijites, represent a doctrine that is contrary to Sunnism.[106] Ibn Taymiyya argued that the Muʿtazilites belong to the Sunnis in the general sense because they recognize the caliphate of the first three caliphs.[107]

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism

There is broad agreement that the

Koran – Scholars, 6. the Sufi ascetics (az-zuhhād aṣ-ṣūfīya), 7. those who perform the ribat and jihad against the enemies of Islam, 8. the general crowd.[108]
According to this classification, the Sufis are one of a total of eight groups within Sunnism, defined according to their religious specialization.

The Tunisian scholar Muhammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Bakkī (d. 1510) also included the Sufis in Sunnism. He divided the Sunnis into the following three groups according to their knowledge (istiqrāʾ):

  1. the people of Hadith (ahl al-ḥadīṯh): Their principles are based on the hearing-based evidence, namely the Book (Qur'an), the Sunnah and the Ijmāʿ (consensus).
  2. The people of theory and the intellectual trade (ahl an-naẓar wa-ṣ-ṣināʿa al-fikrīya): They include the
    Hanafis, the latter of whom consider Abū Mansūr al-Māturīdī as their master. They agree in the rational principles on all questions where there is no hearing-based evidence, in the hearing-based principles in everything that reason conceives as possible, and in the rational as well as the hearing-based principles in all other questions. They also agree on all dogmatic questions, except for the question of creation (takwīn) and the question of Taqlīd
    .
  3. the people of feeling and revelation (ahl al-wiǧdān wa-l-kašf): These are the Sufis. Its principles correspond in the initial stage to the principles of the other two groups, but in the final stage they rely on revelation (kašf) and inspiration (ilhām).[109]

Similarly,

hadith scholars (muḥaddiṯhūn), the Sufis, the Ashʿarites and the Māturīdites.[110]

Some ulema wanted to exclude the Sufis from Sunnism. The Yemeni scholar ʿAbbās ibn Mansūr as-Saksakī (d. 1284) explained in his doxographic work al-Burhān fī maʿrifat ʿaqāʾid ahl al-adyān ("The evidence of knowledge of the beliefs of followers of different religions") about the Sufis: "They associate themselves with the Sunnis, but they do not belong to them, because they contradict them in their beliefs, actions and teachings." That is what distinguishes the Sufis from Sunnis according to as-Saksakī their orientation to the hidden inner meaning of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. In this, he said, they resemble the Bātinites.[111] According to the final document of the Grozny Conference, only those Sufis are to be regarded as Sunnis who are "people of pure Sufism" (ahl at-taṣauwuf aṣ-ṣāfī) in the knowledge, ethics and purification of the interior, according to Method as practiced by al-Junaid Al- Baghdadi and the "Imams of Guidance" (aʾimma al-hudā) who followed his path.[82]

In the 11th century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized"

Wahhabi strands of Sunnism do not accept many mystical practices associated with the contemporary Sufi orders.[115]

Jurisprudence

Interpreting Islamic law by deriving specific rulings – such as how to pray – is commonly known as Islamic jurisprudence. The schools of law all have their own particular tradition of interpreting this jurisprudence. As these schools represent clearly spelled out methodologies for interpreting Islamic law, there has been little change in the methodology with regard to each school. While conflict between the schools was often violent in the past,[116] the four Sunni schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries.[117][118]

Schools

Maliki Madh'hab.[119]

There are many intellectual traditions within the field of

Islamic belief
. Historians have differed regarding the exact delineation of the schools based on the underlying principles they follow.

Many traditional scholars saw Sunni Islam in two groups:

Hanbalite schools.[121][122]

During the

Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi, as well as the Amman Message issued by King Abdullah II of Jordan, recognize the Ẓāhirīs and keep the number of Sunni schools at five.[124][125]

Ahle Sunnat Barelvi

The Ahle Sunnat Barelvi, also known as Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah (People of the Prophet's Way and the Community) is a Sunni revivalist movement following the Hanafi and Shafi'i schools of jurisprudence, and Maturidi and Ashʿari schools of theology with hundreds of millions of followers.[126][127] The movement is moderate form of Islam that Muslims in South Asia have followed for centuries

Deobandi Movement.[129]

Ahle Sunnat Barelvi movement is spread across the globe with millions of followers, thousands of mosques, institutions and organizations in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, United Kingdom, South Africa and other parts of Africa, Europe, the Caribbean, and the United States [130] The movement now has over 200 million followers globally.[131][132]

The movement claim to revive the Sunnah as embodied in the Qur’an and literature of traditions (Hadith), as the people had lapsed from the Prophetic traditions. Consequently, scholars took the duty of reminding Muslims go back to the 'ideal' way of Islam.

Shah Abdul Aziz Muhaddith Dehlavi (1746 –1824) and Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi (1796–1861) founder of the Khairabad School.[135]
Fazle Haq Khairabadi Islamic scholar and leader of
1857 rebellion issued fatwas against Wahabi Ismail Dehlvi for his doctrine of God's alleged ability to lie (Imkan-e-Kizb) from Delhi in 1825.[136] Ismail is considered as an intellectual ancestor of Deobandis.[137]

The movement emphasizes personal devotion to and oneness of God i.e.

saints among other things associated with Sufism.[126][138] They are also called Sunni Sufis.[139] The movement defines itself as the most authentic representative of what is known as Sunnī Islam and thus adopts the generic moniker, Ahl-i-Sunnat wa-al-Jamāʿat (The people who adhere to the Prophetic Tradition and preserve the unity of the community).[140]

Pillars of iman

The doctrines of the Sunnis are recorded in various

creeds, which summarize the most important points in the form of a list in the manner of a Catechism
. The individual teaching points differ depending on the author's affiliation to a certain teaching tradition. The most important creeds that explicitly claim to represent the teachings of the Sunnis (ahl as-sunna wal-jama or similar) include:

  • The text traced back to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, in which he defined "the characteristics of the believer of the Sunnis" (sifat al-Mu'min min ahl as-Sunna wa-l-jama). The text is handed down in two works in the work Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila of the Hanbali Qadi Ibn Abi Yaʿla]] (d. 1131). The first version comes from a treatise on the Sunnah by Ahmad ibn Hanbal's disciple Muhammad ibn Habib al-Andarani, the second is based on Ahmad's disciple Muhammad ibn Yunus al-Sarachhi.[141]
  • The two creeds of Abu l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī in his works Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn[142] and Kitāb al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna.[31] The former is called the teaching of ahl al-ḥadīṯ wa-s-sunna, the latter as the teachings of the ahl al-ḥaqq wa-s-sunna.
  • The confession of the Egyptian Hanafi at-Tahāwī (d. 933), also known under the title Bayān as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ("Presentation of Sunna and Community"). It has received frequent comments from the 13th century onward.[143]
  • The "Qadiritic Creed" (al-iʿtiqād al-Qādirī) mentioned in the world chronicle al-Muntaẓam by
    Ibn al-Jawzī and referring to the Abbasid caliph al-Qādir (d. 1031) is returned. The caliph al-Qā'im is supposed to have read this text, which is shown at the end as the "Doctrine of the Sunnis" (qaul ahl as-sunna wal-jama), in the year 433 Hijra (= 1041/42 AD) which was read in front of a meeting of ascetics and scholars in the caliph's palace.[144]
  • The creed of
    Shahāda" (ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna fī kalimatai aš-šahāda) and deals first with the doctrine of God and then the other doctrinal points.[145]
  • The confession al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya by Ibn Taimīya (1263–1328),[146] which later received importance especially among the Wahhabis and the Ahl-i Hadīth. It was translated into French by Henri Laoust,[147] by Merlin Swartz into English[148] and by Clemens Wein into German.[149]

Most of the mentioned branches testify to six principal articles of faith known as the six pillars of imān (Arabic for "faith"), which are believed to be essential.

Creed of Tahāwi
. Traditionally, these Sunni articles of faith have included the following:

  1. Belief in the
    Oneness of God
  2. Belief in the Angels of God
  3. Belief in Holy Books
  4. Belief in the
    Prophets of God
  5. Belief in Resurrection after Death and the
    Day of Judgment
  6. Belief in Preordainment (
    Qadar
    )

God

Main article: God in Islam

Unity

At the center of the Sunni creed is Tawhid, the belief in the oneness of God. God is a single (fard) God, besides whom there is no other deity.[151] He is single (munfarid), has no partner (šarīk), no opposite (nidd), no counterpart (maṯīl) and no adversary (ḍidd).[152] He has neither taken a companion nor children,[151] neither conceived nor is he conceived.[144]

God created everything, the years and times, day and night, light and darkness, the heavens and the earth, all kinds of creatures that are on it, the land and the sea, and everything living, dead and solid. Before he created all of this, he was completely alone, with nothing with him.[144] In contrast to his creation, God has a timeless nature. He is beginningless (azalī) because he has existed for all eternity and nothing precedes him, and he is endless (abadī) because he continues to exist without interruption for all eternity. He is the first and the last, as it says in the Quran (Sura 57: 3).[153] God brought forth creation not because he needed it, but to demonstrate his power and as the implement his previous will and his primordial speech.[154] God is creator, but has no needs. He does not need food,[155] does not feel lonely and does not keep company with anyone.[144]

Transcendence

To absolve God of all anthropomorphism, the Qur'anic statements that "God sat on the throne" (istawā ʿalā l-ʿarš; Surah 7:54; 20: 5) receive a lot of the Sunni creeds attention. The creed of al-Qādir emphasizes that God did not set himself up on the throne (ʿarš) "in the manner of the rest of the creatures" and that he created this throne, although he did not need it.[144] Al-Ghazali's knowledge of the faith states that the "sitting down" is free from contact (mumāssa) with the throne. It is not the throne that carries God, but the throne and its bearers are carried through the grace of his power.[156] According to al-Ashʿari, the Sunnis confess that God is on his throne, but without asking how.[157] Even if God does not need the throne and what is below, because he spatially occupies everything, including what is above him, the throne and stool (kursī) are a reality.[158]

Names and attributes

The Sunnis confess that the names of God cannot be said to be anything other than God, as Muʿtazilites and Kharijites claim.

kalām).[160] The attributes are not identical to God, nor are they anything different from him.[161] Only those attributes are ascribed to God which he ascribed to himself (in the Quran) or which his prophet ascribed to him. And every attribute that he or his prophet has ascribed to him is a real attribute, not an attribute figuratively.[162]

Angels and other spirits

Muhammed accompanied by the archangels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil und Azrael. Turkish Siyer-i-Nebi
-work, 1595

Sunnis believe in

angels from the vision of humans, thus they can usually not see them. Just in some special occusations God unveils them for individual humans. Like when the archangel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad one time in his true form with 600 wings, filling the entire horizon and another time when he was among the circles of the Sahaba, in the form of a white clothed traveller.[163]

souls (lit. spirits) of the inhabitants of the world.[165]

Unlike the Mutazilites and the Jahmites,

angels and devils are all created by the power of God and bound to his will. Even if humans, jinn, angels and devils aligned to move or stop one atom, they could not succeed without God's will.[168]

Books of God

Historic Quran of Old Dhaka, Bangladesh

The Sunnis further believe in the books of God, sent to the envoys of God.[169][151] To them belong the Quran, the Torah, the Gospel and the Psalms.[160]

The

companions, and the Ummah repeated them.[162]

As the speech of God, the

Ibn Taymīya explains that the Quran originated from God and will return (sc. At the end of times) too.[172]

Prophets

Messages

Confessing to the

Quraish.[176] The Sunnis do not differentiate between the messengers of God, (By rejecting some of them), but consider everything they have brought to be true.[177]

God called the

promise and threat, and it is incumbent on people to believe what they have brought to be true.[176] God has given people the act of obedience (ṭāʿa) and opposition (maʿṣiya) forbidden.[178] God's right to the acts of obedience is not only an obligation for people through the intellect (bi-muǧarrad al-ʿaql), but also through it for making it a duty through the oral transmission of his prophets.[176]

Muhammad

Muhammad from the tribe of the

Messenger, the Imam of the godly (imām al-atqiyāʾ) and the beloved of the Lord of the Worlds (ḥabīb rabb al-ʿālamīn). He is sent with truth (ḥaqq), guidance (hudā) and light (nūr). God has him with his message to Arabs and Non-Arabs as well as sent to the general public of the jinn and humans and with his Sharia, the earlier religious laws abrogated, except that which he has confirmed.[176] Part of the Sunnis path is to follow the traditions (āṯār) of Muhammad internally and externally. They prefer his guidance to the guidance of anyone else.[179]

Muhammad's prophethood is proven by miracles (muʿǧizāt) such as the splitting of the moon. The most obvious miracle is the Quran's

Muhammad's Ascension (miʿrāǧ).[167]
Accordingly, Muhammad went on a nocturnal journey during which his person was transported to heaven while awake and from there to heights, "which God has chosen". God gave him what he had chosen for him and gave him his revelation. God has also blessed him in his life beyond and in this world.[170]

Eschatology

In the grave

According to Sunni doctrine, people are questioned in their graves by

Sadaqa spoken in their name are a favor for them.[167]

Sign of the hour

Another point of belief are the "signs of the hour" (ašrāṭ as-sāʿa) that precede the day of resurrection. This includes the emergence of the

Dajjal, the rising of the sun in the west, the emergence of the Dabba from the earth[183] and the excerpt from Gog and Magog. Jesus, the son of Mary, will descend from heaven[184] and kill the Dajjal.[185]

Day of resurrection

On Day of the Resurrection the resurrection (baʿṯ) and the retribution of the deeds take place.[186] First the bodies of all people, animals and jinn are put back together and revived.[187] The souls are brought back into the body, the people rise from their graves, barefoot, naked and uncircumcised. The sun is approaching them and they are sweating.[188]

A scales are set up to weigh people's deeds. The scales have two

mustard seeds in order to realize the accuracy of God's righteousness. The leaves with good deeds (ḥasanāt) are thrown in a beautiful shape into the scales of light and weigh down the scales by the grace (faḍl) of God, the leaves with bad deeds (saiyiʾāt) are thrown into the scales of darkness in an ugly form and reduce the weight of the scales through the justice (ʿadl) of God.[189]

The vision of God in the hereafter

The teachings of the Sunnis also include the vision of God (ruʾyat Allāh) in the hereafter, which has similarities with the visio beatifica in the

Zaidiyyah and the philosophers who consider the vision of God intellectually impossible.[191]

There are differing views among Sunni scholars about the timing and type of the divine vision. Al-Ashari states that God is seen on the day of resurrection, whereby only the believers see him, the unbelievers not because they are kept away from God.[192] At-Tahāwī, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the vision of God was a reality for the inmates of Paradise.[193] Ibn Taimīya doubles the vision of God: people see God while they are still in the places of the resurrection, and then after entering paradise.[194]

As for the way of seeing God, al-Ash Aari and Ibn Taimiyah emphasized its visual characteristics. Al-Ashari meant that God can be seen with the eyes, just as one sees the moon on the night of the full moon.[192] Ibn Taimīya adds that the vision of God is as one sees the sun on a cloudless day.[194] In the ʿAqīda at-Tahāwīs, the transcendence of God is emphasized: the vision can neither be understood nor described, because none of the creatures are like God.[195] According to al-Ghazālī's creed the pious in the hereafter see the essence of God without substance and accidents.[160] According to the creed of an-Nasafī, God is seen neither in one place nor in any direction or distance. There is also no connection to rays.[196]

Release of the monotheists from hell and intercession

According to the Ibn Taimīya's creed, the

monotheist en (al-muwaḥḥidūn) after being punished.[199] Al-Ghazālī adds that through the grace (faḍl) of God no monotheist remains in hell for all eternity.[200]

According to at-Tahāwī's creed, this only applies to the serious sinners from Muhammad's ummah: They are in hell, but not forever if they were monotheists at the time of death. What happens to them lies within God: if he wants, he forgives them through his grace (faḍl), and if he wants, he punishes them in his justice (ʿadl) and then brings them through His mercy (raḥma) and through the intercession of those who obey him out of hell and make them enter the Paradise Garden.[201]

The intercession (šafāʿa) of the Messenger of God and its effect on those of his ummah who have committed serious sins is a fixed teaching point of the Sunni faith.[202] Muhammad reserved the intercession especially for them.[203] According to al-Ghazālī, the Sunni believer has a total of the intercession of the prophets, then the scholars, then the martyrs, then to believe the other believers in accordance with their dignity and their rank in God. Those of the believers who have no advocate will be brought out of hell by the grace of God.[200]

The predestination

Extent of the predestination

According to Sunni doctrine, everything that happens happens through God's decision (qadāʾ) and predestination (

Qadar) or his determination (taqdīr).[204] Predestination includes the predestination of good and bad, sweet and bitter.[177] God has that The measured (qadar) of creatures and determined their time of time.[205] He makes his creatures sick and heals them, lets them die and makes them alive, while the creatures themselves have no power over it.[144] God lets die without fear and brings to life without exertion.[206] The one who dies dies on the appointed date, even if he is killed.[167]

God has written the things predestined for the creatures on the well-kept tablet (al-lauḥ al-maḥfūẓ). The pen she wrote is the first thing God created. God commanded him to write down what will be until the day of resurrection. The pen has already dried out and the scrolls are rolled up.[207] Everything that was written on it in ancient times is immutable.[208]

God is righteous in his judgments (aqḍiya), but his righteousness cannot be decided by analogy with the righteousness of people, because unjust actions for people are only conceivable with regard to someone else's property, but God does not encounter someone else's property anywhere so that he could behave unfairly to him.[209] The principle of predestination is God's mystery with regard to his creatures. No archangel and no prophet is informed of this. Reflecting on predestination leads to destruction and is a step toward rebellion against God because He has hidden the knowledge about it from people.[210]

The Blessed and the Damned

It is made easy for everyone for what they were created for. Blessed are whose who are saved by God's judgment (qaḍāʾ Allāh), condemned are whose who are condemned by the judgment of God.[211] God created paradise and hell above all else; then he created the people who are worthy of them. He has designated some out of generosity (faḍlan) for paradise, the others out of justice (ʿadlan) for hell.[212] God has always known the number of those who go to paradise and the number of those who go to hell. This number is neither increased nor decreased.[211] When God creates the body of the embryo, he sends an angel to him who writes down his livelihood (rizq), the hour he dies, his deeds and whether he is a damned (šaqī) or a blessed (saʿīd).[213]

The Sunni believer does not doubt his belief.[214] Humans neither know how they are registered by God (whether as believers or unbelievers), nor how it ends with them.[215] God is also the converter of hearts (muqallib al-qulūb).[216] Therefore, it is recommended to say: "A believer, if God is willing" or "I hope that I am a Believer". Such a way of expression does not make people into doubters, because by that, they only mean that their otherworldly fate and their end are hidden from them.[215] The Sunnis do not speak to any of the people who pray to the Kaaba, to paradise or hell,[217] because of a good deed or a sin he has committed.[218]

Sunni view of hadith

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

The Quran as it exists today in book form was compiled by Muhammad's companions (

Sahabah) within a handful of months of his death, and is accepted by all sects of Islam.[219] Many matters of belief and daily life were not directly prescribed in the Quran, but were actions observed by Muhammad and the early Muslim community. Later generations sought out oral traditions regarding the early history of Islam, and the practices of Muhammad and his first followers, and wrote them down so that they might be preserved. These recorded oral traditions are called hadith.[220] Muslim scholars have through the ages sifted through the hadith and evaluated the chain of narrations of each tradition, scrutinizing the trustworthiness of the narrators and judging the strength of each hadith accordingly.[221]

Kutub al-Sittah

Kutub al-Sittah are six books containing collections of hadiths. Sunni Muslims accept the hadith collections of

sahih
), and while accepting all hadiths verified as authentic, grant a slightly lesser status to the collections of other recorders. Four other hadith collections are also held in particular reverence by Sunni Muslims, making a total of six:

There are also other collections of hadith which also contain many authentic hadith and are frequently used by scholars and specialists. Examples of these collections include:

Sunni State institutions

TRT Diyanet kurumsal logo

One of the most important teaching institutions of Sunni Islam worldwide is the Azhar in Egypt. Article 32b, paragraph 7 of the Egyptian Azhar Law of 1961 stipulates that the Azhar "follows the path of the Sunnis" (manhaǧ ahl as-sunna wa-l-jamāʿa), Umma has agreed to the foundations of the religion and applications of fiqh, with its four disciplines. Only those who stick to the paths of their science and behavior can become a "Member of the Council of Great Scholars" (haiʾat kibār al-ʿulamāʾ), among whom the Grand Imam of al-Azhar is elected.[222] Zitouna University in Tunisia and University of al-Qarawiyyin in Morocco are recognized. They are also mentioned, along with the Azhar, in the final document of the Sunni Conference in Grozny.[223]

Another body that claims to speak on behalf of Sunnism is the Council of Senior Religious Scholars founded in Saudi Arabia in 1971. In the past, the committee has expressed several times on fatwas about the Sunni-membership of certain Islamic groups within. In 1986 it published a fatwa excluding the Ahbāsh community from Sunnism.[224] The Islamic World League in Mecca, also funded by Saudi Arabia, made a resolution from 1987 that it regards Sunnism as the pure teachings at the time of the Messenger and the rightful existence of the Caliphate.[225] However, the Council of Senior Religious Scholars is largely under control of Wahhabi scholars.[226]

The Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı), follows the religious policy of the Ottoman Empire, providing a Sunni interpretation of Islam.[227] Plans by the Committee of National Unity in the 1960s to convert the Diyanet authority into a non-denominational institution that also integrated the Alevis, failed because of resistance from conservative Sunni clergy inside and outside the Diyanet authority.[228] Since the 1990s, the Diyanet authority has presented itself as an institution that stands above the denominations (mezhepler üstü)[227] The religious education organized by the authority at the Turkish schools is based exclusively on the Sunni understanding of Islam.[229]

Self-image of the Sunnis

As the "saved sect"

A well-known

Ra'y and the followers of the hadith. They agreed on the fundamentals of religion (uṣūl ad-dīn). There were only differences in the derivations (furūʿ) from the norms regarding the question of what permitted and what forbidden is. These differences are not so great that they considered each other to have strayed from the right path.[231]

As center of Muslims

Later Sunni scholars also present the Sunnis as the center of Muslim community. The idea already appears to some extent in the Ashʿarite ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī, who emphasizes on several dogmatic questions that the Sunnis hold a position that lies in the middle between the positions of the other Islamic groups.

Qadariyya
.

The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who was otherwise known for his uncompromising attitude, also adhered to this view. He said that the Sunnis represented "the middle among the sects of the Umma" (al-wasaṭ fī firaq al-umma), just as the Islamic Umma is the middle between the other religious communities. He illustrates this with the following examples:

  • When it comes to the attributes of God, the Sunnis stand in the middle between the Jahmiyya, who completely drains God of attributes, and the Muschabbiha, who make God similar to creation,
  • in the works of God they stand in the middle between the Qadariyya and the Jabriyya,
  • on the question of the threat from God (waʿid Allah) they stand in the middle between the Murdschi'a and the Waʿīdiyya, a subgroup of the Qadariyya,
  • When it comes to the question of faith and religion, they stand in the middle between Haruiyya (= Kharijites) and
    Muʿtazila
    on the one hand and Murji'a and Jahmiyya on the other,
  • and with regard to the
    Companions of the Prophets they are in the middle between Rafidites and Kharijites.[233]

The Hanafi scholar

Party of ʿAlīs" (šīʿat ʿAlī).[234]

As the essential bearers of Islamic science and culture

ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī portrays the Sunnis in his work al-Farq baina l-firaq as the actual bearers of Islamic science and culture. Of all the sciences, knowledge and efforts of which Muslims are proud, al-Baghdādī explains that the Sunnis have a major share.

mosques, madrasas, palaces, factories and hospitals have achieved an unattainable position because none of the non-Sunnis have performed such services.[236]

Contemporary Ashʿarī – Salafī relations

Ahmed el-Tayeb, Great-Imam of Azhar, was one of the most important participants of the Sunni-conference in Grozny, distanced himself from the declaration

Since the second half of the 20th century, there have been fierce clashes within the Sunni camps between

Ashʿarites on the one hand and Salafiyya on the other, who exclude each other from Sunnism. In Indonesia, the Ashʿarite scholar Sirajuddin Abbas (d. 1980) wrote several books in the 1960s in which he explicitly excluded the Ahl as-salaf from Sunnism. Among other things, he argued that there was no Salafi madhhab in the first 300 years of Islam. From this he deduced that those who called other Muslims to obey the Salafi madhhab, were promoting a madhhab which did not even exist.[237] In his view, only the Ashʿarites were real Sunnis. Abbas' books served as the theological basis for anti-Salafist campaigns in Aceh in 2014.[238] During these campaigns, various Salafist schools in Aceh were closed by the provincial government.[239]

The

Ibn Taimiyya expressed the opinion that Ash'arites and Māturīdites would not count among the Sunnis, because their doctrine of attributes would be in contrast to the doctrine of Muhammad and his companions. For this reason, the view that three groups belong to Sunnism should also be rejected. Sunnis are only those who are salaf in terms of belief.[242]

The accusation by some Wahhabis that the Ashʿarites were not Sunnis was subject of a fatwa by the "Egyptian Fatwa Office" in July 2013. In its fatwa, the office rejected this accusation, affirming that the Ashʿarites still represented the "multitude of scholars" (jumhūr al-ʿulamāʾ), and stressed out that they were the ones who in the past rejected the arguments of the atheists (šubuhāt al-malāḥida). Anyone who declares them to be unbelieving or who doubts their orthodoxy should fear for their religion.[243] On the same day, the fatwa office made clear in a fatwa that, according to their understanding, the Ahl as-Sunna wa-l-jama only refer to those Muslims who are Ashʿarites or Maturidites.[99]

The rivalry between Ashʿarīyya and Salafiyya became visible again at the two Sunni conferences in 2016, which were directed against the terror of the IS organization. The

ISIL were excluded from Sunni Islam.[244] In response to this, various prominent Salafiyya figures held a counter-conference in Kuwait in November 2016 under the title "The Correct Meaning of Sunnism" (al-Mafhūm aṣ-ṣaḥīḥ li-ahl as-sunna wa-l-jama), in which they also distanced themselves from extremist groups, but at the same time insisted that Salafiyya was not only part of Sunnism, but represented Sunnism itself. The conference was chaired by Ahmad ibn Murabit, Grand Mufti of Mauritania.[245][246] A few days later, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed el-Tayeb publicly distanced himself from the final declaration of the Grozny conference, reiterating that he had not participated in it and stressed that he naturally viewed the Salafists as Sunnis.[247]

See also

References

  1. ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Sunni Islam". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 28 October 2010.
  2. ISSN 0099-9660
    . Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  3. ^ a b Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (Second ed.). MacMillan Reference.
  4. ISBN 978-1610691789
    .
  5. ISBN 0521646960
    .
  6. ISBN 978-0195793871
    . The Shi'a unequivocally take the word in the meaning of leader, master and patron and therefore the explicitly nominated successor of the Prophet. The Sunnis, on the other hand, interpret the word mawla in the meaning of a friend or the nearest kin and confidant.
  7. ^ "Sunnism". -Ologies & -Isms. The Gale Group. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  8. ISBN 978-1135165956
    .
  9. ISBN 978-9004172739
    .
  10. ISBN 978-0805418293
    .
  11. ^ An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining sunna, especially the Sunna of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, mubtadi, from bid'a, the contrary of sunna and so 'innovation'."
  12. ^ Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1271.
  13. ^ Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, p. 1272. (German)
  14. ^ Patricia Crone und Martin Hinds: God's Caliph. Religious authority in the first centuries of Islam. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986. S. 59–61.
  15. ^ Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb ibn Sufyān al-Fasawī: Kitāb al-Maʿrifa wa-t-tārīḫ. Ed. Akram Ḍiyāʾ al-ʿUmarī. 3 Bde. Bagdad: Maṭbaʿat Aršād 1975. Bd. II, p. 813. Digitalisat.
  16. ^ Šams ad-Dīn aḏ-Ḏahabī: Siyar aʿlām an-nubalāʾ. Ed. Šuʿaib al-Arnāʾūṭ. 11. Aufl. Muʾassasat ar-Risāla, Beirut, 1996. Bd. IV, S. 300. Digitalisat
  17. ^ Ibn Taimīya: Minhāǧ as-sunna an-nabawīya. Ed. Muḥammad Rašād Sālim. Ǧamiʿat al-Imām Muḥammad Ibn-Saʿid, Riad, 1986. Bd. II, S. 221, 224. Digitalisat
  18. ^ Muḥammad Rašīd Riḍā: as Sunna wa-š-šiʿa au al-Wahhābīya wa-r-Rāfiḍa: Ḥaqāʾiq dīnīya taʾrīḫīya iǧtimaʿīya iṣlaḥīya. Kairo 1928/29. Digitalisat Wikisource
  19. ^ So zum Beispiel bei Mohammad Heidari-Abkenar: Die ideologische und politische Konfrontation Schia-Sunna: am Beispiel der Stadt Rey des 10. – 12. Jh. n. Chr. Inaugural-Dissertation Köln 1992 und Ofra Bengo und Meir Litvak: The Sunna and Shi'a in history. Division and ecumenism in the Muslim Middle East. 1. Aufl. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011.
  20. ^ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Muqaddima, Bāb anna al-isnād min ad-dīn wa-ʾanna r-riwāya lā takūn illā ʿan aṯ-ṯiqāt
  21. ^ G.H.A. Juynboll: Muslim tradition. Studies in chronology, provenance and authorship of early ḥadīṯ. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 1983. S. 17f.
  22. ^ Zaman: Religion and politics under the early ʿAbbāsids. 1997, S. 49.
  23. ^ Abū Ḥanīfa: Risāla ilā ʿUṯmān al-Battī. Ed. Muḥammad Zāhid al-Kauṯarī. Kairo, 1949. S. 38. Digitalisat.
  24. ^ Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1273.
  25. ^ a b Ulrich Rudolph: Al-Māturīdī und die sunnitische Theologie in Samarkand. Brill, Leiden 1997. S. 66.
  26. ^ Juynboll: "An Excursus on ahl as-sunnah". 1998, S. 321.
  27. ^ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila. 1952, Bd. II, S. 40.
  28. ^ Abū l-Qāsim Hibatallāh al-Lālakāʾī: Šarḥ uṣūl iʿtiqād ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa. 8. Aufl. Ed. Aḥmad Saʿd Ḥamdān. Wizārat aš-šuʾūn al-islāmīya, Riad, 2003. Bd. I, S. 65. Digitalisat – Engl. Übers. bei Juynboll: "An Excursus on ahl as-sunnah". 1998, S. 319.
  29. ^ Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-n-niḥal. Ed. Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Naṣr; ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmān ʿUmaira. 5 Bde. Dār al-Ǧīl, Beirut 1985. Bd. II, S. 265.
  30. ^ Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1274.
  31. ^ a b So al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna. S. 8. – Engl. Übers. S. 49.
  32. ^ Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad b. Jarīr aṭ-Ṭabarī: Taʾrīḫ ar-rusul wa-l-mulūk. Hrsg. von M. J. de Goeje. Brill, Leiden, 1879–1901. Bd. III, S. 1114, Zeile 4–8 Digitalisat und Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1278.
  33. ^ Vgl. Yāqūt ar-Rūmī: Muʿǧam al-Buldān Ed. F. Wüstenfeld. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1866–1870. Bd. III, S. 213f. Digitalisat und van Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, S. 332. (german)
  34. ^ Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1273f.
  35. ^ a b Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, Bd. II, S. 1276.
  36. ^ a b al-Bazdawī: Kitāb Uṣūl ad-Dīn. 2003, S. 250.
  37. ^ Er kommt bei ihm nur einmal vor, nämlich al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn wa-iḫtilāf al-muṣallīn. 1963, S. 471, Zeile 10. Digitalisat
  38. ^ van Ess: Der Eine und das Andere. 2011, S. 681, 718.
  39. ^ Brodersen: "Sunnitische Identitätssuche im Transoxanien des 5./11. Jahrhunderts." 2019, S. 345.
  40. ^ Brodersen: "Sunnitische Identitätssuche im Transoxanien des 5./11. Jahrhunderts." 2019, S. 347. (German)
  41. ^ al-Bazdawī: Kitāb Uṣūl ad-Dīn. 2003, S. 254.
  42. ^ Šams ad-Dīn al-Muqaddasī: Kitāb Aḥsan at-taqāsīm fī maʿrifat al-aqālīm. Ed. M. J. de Goeje. 2. Aufl. Brill, Leiden 1906. S. 37. Digitalisat – Französische Übersetzung André Miquel. Institut Français de Damas, Damaskus, 1963. S. 88.
  43. ^ So Kate Chambers Seelye in ihrer Übersetzung von al-Baghdādīs Al-Farq baina l-firaq, siehe Seelye: Moslem Schisms and Sects. 1920, S. 38.
  44. ^ See z. B. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda aṭ-Ṭaḥāwīya. 1995, S. 24. – Engl. Übers. Watt: Islamic creeds: a selection. 1994, S. 53.
  45. ^ Siehe z. B. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda aṭ-Ṭaḥāwīya. 1995, S. 24. – Engl. Übers. Watt: Islamic creeds: a selection. 1994, S. 53.
  46. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda aṭ-Ṭaḥāwīya. 1995, S. 31. – Engl. Übers. Watt: Islamic creeds: a selection. 1994, S. 56.
  47. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 128. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 99.
  48. ^ a b Murtaḍā az-Zabīdī: Itḥāf as-sāda al-muttaqīn bi-šarḥ Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. Muʾassasat at-taʾrīḫ al-ʿArabī, Beirut, 1994. Bd. II, S. 6 Digitalisat
  49. ^ Saleh: Modern Trends in Islamic Theological Discourse in 20th Century Indonesia. 2001, S. 91–96. (German)
  50. ISBN 978-0231531924
    . It is a mistake to assume, as is frequently done, that Sunni Islam emerged as normative from the chaotic period following Muhammad's death and that the other two movements simply developed out of it. This assumption is based in... the taking of later and often highly ideological sources as accurate historical portrayals – and in part on the fact that the overwhelming majority of Muslims throughout the world follows now what emerged as Sunni Islam in the early period.
  51. ISBN 978-0231531924
    . Each of these sectarian movements... used the other to define itself more clearly and in the process to articulate its doctrinal contents and rituals.
  52. ^ Tore Kjeilen. "Lexic Orient.com". Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
  53. ISBN 978-0231521659
    .
  54. ^ Maududi, Abul A'la (July 2000). Khilafat o Malookiat [Caliphate and Monarchistic] (in Urdu). Lahore, Pakistan: Adara Tarjuman-ul-Quran (Private) Ltd, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan. pp. 105–153.
  55. ISBN 978-0385523936
    .
  56. ISBN 978-1273126963
    .
  57. ^ Nadvi, Syed Abul Hasan Ali. Al-Murtaza [The Murtaza] (in Urdu). Karachi Pakistan: Majlis-e-Nashriyat-e-Islam. pp. 218–382.
  58. ^ Maududi, Abul A'la (July 2000). Khilafat o Malookiat [Caliphate and Monarchistic] (in Urdu). Lahore, Pakistan: Adara Tarjuman-ul-Quran (Private) Ltd, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan. p. 90.
  59. ISBN 978-0195793871
    .
  60. ISBN 978-1138953215
    .
  61. ^ Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (1982).
  62. ISBN 978-0141968704
    .
  63. ISBN 978-0582086951
    .
  64. ISBN 978-0313340123
    .
  65. ISBN 978-0333098714
    .
  66. ISBN 978-1845112578
    .
  67. S2CID 55948737
    .
  68. ^ Minahan, James (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations. p. 547.
  69. ^ "Profile: Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi". BBC News. 15 May 2015.
  70. ^ Da Silva, Chantel (16 June 2017). "Cologne rally: As many as 10,000 Muslims to protest Islamic extremism". Independent. Cologne. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  71. ^
    ISBN 978-9004185920
    , pp. 114–116.
  72. ISBN 978-9004185920
    , pp. 120–121.
  73. ^ Source for distribution is the CIA World Factbook, Shiite/Sunnite distribution collected from other sources. Shiites may be underrepresented in some countries where they do not appear in official statistics.
  74. ISBN 978-1610691789
    pp. 106–107
  75. ^ Quran 9:100
  76. ISBN 978-1107101524
    p. 138
  77. ^ Masjid al-Muslimiin. "Organizational Structure Of Islam". The Islamic Center of Columbia (South Carolina). Archived from the original on 1 October 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
  78. ^ "Region: Middle East-North Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population – Executive Summary. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  79. ^ See:
  80. ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad aṣ-Ṣaffārīnī Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya wa-sawāṭiʿ al-asrār al-aṯarīya. Muʾassasat al-Ḫāfiqain, Damaskus, 1982. Bd. I, S. 73. Digitalisat
  81. ^ a b İsmail Hakkı İzmirli: Muḥaṣṣalü l-kelâm ve-l-ḥikme. Istanbul 1336h (= 1917/18 n.Chr.). S. 75. Digitalisat
  82. ^ a b Abschlussdokument der Grosny-Konferenz von 2016, arabisches Original und deutsche Übersetzung.
  83. ^ J. B. Schlubach. "Fethullah Gülen and Al-Ghazzali on Tolerance". Archived from the original on 4 March 2010. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
  84. ISBN 978-9004357242
    p. 21
  85. ISBN 978-9004357242
    p. 21
  86. ISBN 978-3319973555
    p. 108
  87. ^ "Maturidiyyah". Philtar. Archived from the original on 23 February 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2006.
  88. ISBN 978-0230106581
    .
  89. ISBN 978-8178357195
    .
  90. ISBN 978-0199696703
    .
  91. ISBN 978-1137473578
    .
  92. ISBN 978-1137473578
    .
  93. ^
    ISBN 978-0521514309
    .
  94. ISBN 978-0521514309
    .
  95. ^ Blankinship, Khalid (2008). "The early creed". In Tim Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). p. 53.
  96. ISBN 978-1137473578
    .
  97. ^ Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition). p. 180. The Ash'ari school of theology is often called the Sunni 'orthodoxy.' But the original ahl al-hadith, early Sunni creed from which Ash'arism evolved has continued to thrive alongside it as a rival Sunni 'orthodoxy' as well.
  98. ISBN 978-0199696703
    . Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  99. ^ a b c al-Murād bi-ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa Archived 17 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine Fatwa Nr. 2366 des ägyptischen Fatwa-Amtes vom 24. Juli 2013.
  100. ^ Aḥmad b. ʿAǧība: Tafsīr al-Fātiḥa al-kabīr. Ed. ʿĀṣim Ibrāhīm al-Kaiyālī. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2005. p. 347.
  101. ^ a b Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-n-niḥal. Ed. Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Naṣr; ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmān ʿUmaira. 5 Bde. Dār al-Jīl, Beirut 1985. Bd. II, pp. 265ff.
  102. ^ "Are the Ash'aris from Ahlus-Sunnah?". Salafi Research Institute. 14 August 2016. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021.
  103. ^ Ibn Taimīya: Minhāǧ as-sunna an-nabawīya. Ed. Muḥammad Rašād Sālim. Ǧamiʿat al-Imām Muḥammad Ibn-Saʿid, Riad, 1986. Bd. II, S. 221f. Digitalized
  104. ^ Muḥammad ibn ʿUṯaimīn: Aš-Šarḥ al-mumtiʿ ʿalā Zād al-mustaqniʿ. Dār Ibn al-Ǧauzī, Dammam, 2006. Bd. XI, S. 306 Digitalized
  105. ^ for example: Halm: "Der Wesir al-Kundurī und die Fitna von Nišāpūr". 1971, pp. 214, 216ff. (German)
  106. ^ Dāʾirat al-Iftāʾ fī l-Mamlaka al-Urdunnīya al-Hāšimīya: al-Ašāʿira hum ǧumhūr ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa Fatwa Nr. 489 vom 2. Februar 2010. Englische Übersetzung
  107. ^ Ibn Taimīya: Minhāǧ as-sunna an-nabawīya. Ed. Muḥammad Rašād Sālim. Jamiʿat al-Imām Muḥammad Ibn-Saʿid, Riad, 1986. Bd. VI, S. 379. Digitalized
  108. ^ al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq. pp. 272–274. – Engl. Übers. Halkin S. 159–163.
  109. ^ Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Bakkī: Taḥrīr al-maṭālib fīmā taḍammanathū ʿAqīdat Ibn Ḥāǧib. Muʾassasat al-Maʿārif, Beirut, 2008. S. 40f. Digitalisat
  110. ^ Murtaḍā az-Zabīdī: Itḥāf as-sāda al-muttaqīn bi-šarḥ Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. Muʾassasat at-taʾrīḫ al-ʿArabī, Beirut, 1994. Bd. II, S. 86 Digitalisat
  111. ^ ʿAbbās ibn Manṣūr as-Saksakī: al-Burhān fī maʿrifat ʿaqāʾid ahl al-adyān. Ed. Bassām ʿAlī Salāma al-ʿAmūš. 2. Aufl. Maktabat al-Manār, az-Zarqā', 1996. p. 101. Digitalisat
  112. ^ a b c Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. William C. Chittick (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2007), p. 76
  113. ^ a b Martin Lings, What is Sufism? (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p. 16
  114. ^ Titus Burckhardt, Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2008, p. 4, note 2
  115. ^ Jeffrey Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam, 2010, p. 48
  116. ^
    ISBN 978-0199230495
  117. ISBN 978-0195305135
    .
  118. ISBN 978-0199739356
    .
  119. ^ Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Riad Nourallah, The future of Islam, Routledge, 2002, page 199
  120. ^ Murtada Mutahhari. "The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation". Al-Islam.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012.
  121. ^ Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, The Legal System, Grande Strategy, January 5th, 2012
  122. ISBN 978-9004162419
  123. ^ "Law, Islamic". Encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  124. ISBN 978-1405178488
  125. ^ "AmmanMessage.com – The Official Site". Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
  126. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0
    .
  127. ISBN 978-1-351-98686-1. Archived
    from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  128. ^ Boone, Jon (15 January 2014). "The saints go marching out as the face of Islam hardens in Pakistan". The Guardian.
  129. ^ "Sufi Orders". Pew Research Center. 15 September 2010. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
  130. ^ "Noted Sufi heads denounce fatwa issued by Barelvis". The Times of India.
  131. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7
    .
  132. ^ "The Barelvī School of Thought".
  133. ^ (Sanyal 1996)
  134. ^ Ayesha Khan (2020). Sufisticated:Exploring post-Tariqa Sufi expression amongst young British Muslims (PhD thesis). Cardiff University.
  135. ^ Introduction of Ahle Sunnat wal Jama'at (Sawad E Azam Ahl E Sunnat Wal Jama'at Aqaed W Mamulat) by Yaseen Akhtar Misbahi, published by Darul Qalam, Delhi 2014
  136. Shah Abd al-Haqq Muhaddith e -Dehlawi
    Academy.
  137. OCLC 759884386
    .
  138. ^ Cite error: The named reference netton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  139. ^ Cite error: The named reference sas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  140. ^ "The Barelvī School of Thought".
  141. ^ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila. 1952, Bd. I, S. 294f und S. 329f.
  142. ^ al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn wa-iḫtilāf al-muṣallīn. 1963, p. 290–297. Digitalisat – Compare to the translations of Joseph Schacht: Der Islām mit Ausschluss des Qur'āns. Mohr/Siebeck, Tübingen 1931, pp. 54–61. Digitalisat
  143. William Montgomery Watt
    : Islamic creeds: a selection. Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh, 1994. pp. 56–60.
  144. ^ a b c d e f Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Al-Muntaẓam fī sulūk al-mulūk wa-l-umam. 1992, Bd. XV, S. 280. – Dt. Übers. Mez 198.
  145. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. Dār Ibn Ḥazm, Beirut, 2005. S. 106–111. Digitalisat
  146. ^ Ed. Ašraf ibn ʿAbd al-Maqṣūd. Aḍwāʾ as-salaf, Riad, 1999. Digitalisat
  147. ^ Henri Laoust: La profession de foi d'Ibn Taymiyya, texte, trad. et commentaire de la Wāsiṭiyya. Geuthner, Paris, 1986.
  148. ^ Merlin L. Swartz: "A Seventh-Century (A.H.) Sunnī Creed: The ʿAqīda Wāsiṭīya of Ibn Taymīya" in Humaniora Islamica 1 (1973) 91–131.
  149. ^ Clemens Wein: Die islamische Glaubenslehre (ʿAqīda) des Ibn Taimīya. Inaugural-Dissertation Bonn 1973. S. 70–101.
  150. ^ "Dr Al-Ifta Al-Missriyyah". Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  151. ^ a b c d e al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. 1963, S. 290. – Dt. Übers. Schacht, S. 56.
  152. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 106 – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. S. 73.
  153. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 106 – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 73.
  154. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 108. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 76.
  155. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 9. – Engl. Übers. Watt 48.
  156. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 106. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 73f.
  157. ^ al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. p. 290. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, p. 57.
  158. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 19. – Engl. Übers. Watt 52.
  159. ^ al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. S. 290f. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, p. 56f.
  160. ^ a b c d al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 107. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 76.
  161. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-jama. 1843, p. 7.
  162. ^ a b Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Al-Muntaẓam fī sulūk al-mulūk wa-l-umam. 1992, Bd. XV, S. 280. – Dt. Übers. Mez 199.
  163. ^ Muḥammad ibn Ṣāliḥ al-ʿUṯaimīn: ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa. 2001/02, p. 20.
  164. ^ Muḥammad ibn Ṣāliḥ al-ʿUṯaimīn: ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa. 2001/02, S. 20.
  165. ^ a b aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 25. – Engl. Übers. Watt 54.
  166. ^ al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna. S. 12. – Engl. Übers. 55.
  167. ^ a b c d al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. S. 296. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, S. 60.
  168. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 107 – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. S. 75.
  169. ^ a b c aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 20. – Engl. Übers. Watt 52.
  170. ^ a b c d e f aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, pp. 12–15 – Engl. Übers. Watt 49.
  171. ^ al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . P. 10. – Engl. Transl. 51.
  172. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 89. – German transl. Wein p. 86.
  173. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 18.
  174. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 16. – Engl. Übers. Watt 51.
  175. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 20. – Engl. Übers. Watt 52.
  176. ^ a b c d e f al-Ġazālī: `` Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 77.
  177. ^ a b aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 22. – Engl. Übers. Watt 53.
  178. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. – Engl. Übers. Watt 49.
  179. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 128. – German transl. Wein p. 98.
  180. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, pp. 16f.
  181. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 95. – German transl. Wein p. 87.
  182. ^ an-Nasafī: ' 'ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa' '. 1843, p. 25
  183. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 31. – Engl. Übers. Watt 56.
  184. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 28.
  185. ^ al-As Aarī: `` Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 295. - German translation 1931, p. 60.
  186. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 26. - Engl. Übers. Watt 54.
  187. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa -l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 25f.
  188. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 97. – German transl. Wein p. 87.
  189. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. pp. 77f.
  190. ^ Vgl. van Ess: Theologie und Gesellschaft. 1997, Bd. IV, S. 411–415.
  191. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 12.
  192. ^ a b al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. S. 292. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, S. 58.
  193. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 13. Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  194. ^ a b Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 91. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 86.
  195. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 13–15. – Engl. Übers. Watt 49f.
  196. ^ an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa. 1843, S. 12.
  197. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 100. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 89.
  198. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 101. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 89.
  199. ^ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila. 1952. Bd. I, p. 295.
  200. ^ a b al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 110. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. p. 78.
  201. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 22f. – Engl. Übers. Watt 53.
  202. ^ al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. p. 293. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, S. 58f.
  203. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 16. – Engl. Übers. Watt 50.
  204. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 11, 27. – Engl. Übers. Watt 49, 55.
  205. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 10. – Engl. Übers. Watt 49.
  206. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 9. – Engl. Übers. Watt 48.
  207. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 105. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 90.
  208. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 18. – Engl. Übers. Watt 51.
  209. ^ al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn. 2005, S. 108. – Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. S. 76.
  210. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 17. – Engl. Übers. Watt 49.
  211. ^ a b aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 16. – Engl. Übers. Watt 51.
  212. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, p. 26. – Engl. Übers. Watt 54.
  213. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999, S. 106. – Dt. Übers. Wein S. 91.
  214. ^ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila. 1952. Bd. I, S. 329.
  215. ^ a b Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Al-Muntaẓam fī sulūk al-mulūk wa-l-umam. 1992, Bd. XV, S. 281. – Dt. Übers. Mez 200.
  216. ^ al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn. p. 293. – Dt. Übersetzung 1931, S. 58.
  217. ^ aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda. 1995, S. 23. – Engl. Übers. Watt 53.
  218. ^ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila. 1952. Bd. I, S. 294.
  219. ^ Muhammad Hamidullah, "Tareekh Quran Majeed", Khutbat-e-Bahawalpur pp. 1–17
  220. Mufti Taqi Usmani
    , The Authority of Sunnah, Delhi: Kitab Bhawan, p. 6
  221. ^ Muhammad Mustafa Azmi, "Hadith Criticism: History and Methodology". Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature, pp. 46–57
  222. ^ "Gesetz Nr. 103/1961 über die Neuordnung der Azhar und Gremien, die sie umfasst Art. 32b, Abs. 7" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  223. ^ a b Final Document of Grozn von 2016, arabisches Original and German translation.
  224. ^ Mustafa Kabha und Haggai Erlich: "Al-Ahbash and Wahhabiyya: Interpretations of Islam" in International Journal of Middle East Studies 38/4 (2006) 519–538. Hier p. 527f. und Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd ar-Razzāq ad-Darwīš: Fatāwā al-Laǧna ad-dāʾima li-l-buḥūṯ al-ʿilmīya wal-iftāʾ. Dār al-ʿĀṣima, Riad, 1996. Bd. XII, p. 308–323. Digitalisat
  225. ^ Arbitrament10/9 Ḥukm al-ḫilāf al-ʿaqadī wa-l-fiqhī wa-t-taʿaṣṣub al-maḏhabī from 21. Oktober 1987, See: Qarārāt al-maǧmaʿ al-fiqhī al-Islāmī bi-Makka al-mukarrama fī daurātihī al-ʿišrīn (1398-1432h/1977-2010m) Rābiṭat al-ʿālam al-islāmī, Mekka o. D. p. 257–260. p. 258 Digitalized
  226. ^ Steinberg, Guido. "THE WAHHABIYA, SAUDI ARABIA AND THE SALAFIST MOVEMENT." Islamic Movements of Europe: Public Religion and Islamophobia in the Modern World (2014): 38.
  227. ^ a b Lord: Religious Politics in Turkey: From the Birth of the Republic to the AKP. 2018, p. 138.
  228. ^ Lord: Religious Politics in Turkey: From the Birth of the Republic to the AKP. 2018, p. 142–147.
  229. ^ Lord: Religious Politics in Turkey: From the Birth of the Republic to the AKP. 2018, p. 155.
  230. ^ Juynboll: "An Excursus on ahl as-sunnah". 1998, p. 323f.
  231. ^ al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq. S. 38f. – Engl. Übers. Chambers Seelye S. 38 (the term ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa is here translated as "the orthodoxy").
  232. ^ John B. Henderson: The construction of orthodoxy and heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and early Christian patterns. State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1998. p. 107.
  233. ^ Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya. 1999. S. 82. Digitalized Deutsche Übers. Cl. Wein. 1973, S. 84f.
  234. ^ ʿAlī al-Qārī: Šamm al-al-ʿawāriḍ fī ḏamm ar-rawāfiḍ. Ed. Maǧīd Ḫalaf. Markaz al-Furqān, Kairo, 2004. p. 74, 76. Digitalized
  235. ^ al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq. p. 314.
  236. ^ al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq. p. 317.
  237. ^ Dhuhri: "The Text of Conservatism". 2016, p. 46f.
  238. ^ Dhuhri: "The Text of Conservatism". 2016, p. 49.
  239. ^ Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict: "The Anti-Salafi Campaign in Aceh". IPAC-Report No. 32 6. Oktober 2016.
  240. ^ Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd ar-Razzāq ad-Darwīš: Fatāwā al-Laǧna ad-dāʾima li-l-buḥūṯ al-ʿilmīya wal-iftāʾ. Dār al-ʿĀṣima, Riad, 1996. Bd. II, S. 165f. digitalized
  241. ^ Namira Nahouza: Wahhabism and the Rise of the New Salafis. Theology, Power and Sunni Islam. Tauris, London, 2018. p. 144–147.
  242. ^ Muḥammad Ibn ʿUṯaimīn: Šarḥ al-Wāsiṭīya li-Ibn Taimīya. Dār Ibn al-Ǧauzī, ad-Dammām, 2001. p. 53f. Digitalized
  243. ^ Ramy al-Ašāʿira bi-l-ḫurūǧ ʿan ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa Archived 17 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine Fatwa Nr. 2370 des ägyptischen Fatwa-Amtes vom 24. Juli 2013.
  244. ^ "The Conference of Ulama in Grozny: the Reaction of the Islamic World". islam.in.ua.
  245. ^ Muʾtamar bi-l-Kuwait raddan ʿalā Ġurūznī as-salaf hum as-sunna... wa-lā li-ṯ-ṯaurāt Arabic CNN 13. November 2016.
  246. ^ ʿAbdallāh Maṣmūdī: Tauṣīyāt Muʾtamar al-Mafhūm aṣ-ṣaḥīḥ li-ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa wa-aṯaru-hū fī l-wiqāya min al-ġulūw wa-t-taṭarruf. Howiyapress.com 13. November 2016.
  247. ^ Aḥmad aṭ-Ṭaiyib: al-Azhar barīʾ min muʾtamar aš-Šīšān.. wa-s-Salafīyūn min ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa Arabic CNN 19. November 2016.

Further reading

  • Ahmed, Khaled. Sectarian war: Pakistan's Sunni-Shia violence and its links to the Middle East (Oxford University Press, 2011).
  • Charles River Editors. The History of the Sunni and Shia Split: Understanding the Divisions within Islam (2010) 44pp excerpt; brief introduction.
  • Farooqi, Mudassir, Sarwar Mehmood Azhar, and Rubeena Tashfeen. "Jihadist Organizations History and Analysis." Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 43.1/2 (2018): 142–151. online
  • Gesink, Indira Falk. Islamic reform and conservatism: Al-Azhar and the evolution of modern Sunni Islam (Tauris Academic Studies, 2010)
  • Haddad, Fanar. Understanding 'Sectarianism': Sunni-Shi'a Relations in the Modern Arab World (Oxford UP, 2020).
  • Haddad, Fanar. "Anti-Sunnism and anti-Shiism: Minorities, majorities and the question of equivalence." Mediterranean Politics (2020): 1–7 online[dead link].
  • Halverson, Jeffry. Theology and creed in Sunni Islam: the Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and political Sunnism (Springer, 2010).
  • Hazleton, Lesley. After the prophet: the epic story of the Shia-Sunni split in Islam (Anchor, 2010).
  • Kamolnick, Paul. The Al-Qaeda Organization and the Islamic State Organization: History, Doctrine, Modus, Operandi, and US Policy to Degrade and Defeat Terrorism Conducted in the Name of Sunni Islam (Strategic Studies Institute, United States Army War College, 2017) online.
  • Khaddour, Kheder. Localism, War, and the Fragmentation of Sunni Islam in Syria (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace., 2019) online.
  • McHugo, John. A Concise History of Sunnis and Shi'is (2018) excerpt
  • Nuruzzaman, Mohammed. "Conflicts in Sunni Political Islam and Their Implications." Strategic Analysis 41.3 (2017): 285–296 online[dead link].
  • Nydell, Margaret K. Understanding Arabs: A guide for modern times (3rd ed. Hachette UK, 2018).
  • Patler, Nicholas (2017). From Mecca to Selma: Malcolm X, Islam, and the Journey Into the American Civil Rights Movement. The Islamic Monthly. Archived from the original on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  • Tezcan, Baki. "The Disenchantment of Sufism, the Rationalization of Sunni Islam, and Early Modernity." Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7.1 (2020): 67–69 online.
  • Wheeler, Branon. Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship, SUNY Press, 1996.
  • "Sunnites" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

Online

  • Sunni: Islam, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Asma Afsaruddin, Yamini Chauhan, Aakanksha Gaur, Gloria Lotha, Matt Stefon, Noah Tesch and Adam Zeidan
New International Encyclopedia article "Sunnites
".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sunni_Islam&oldid=1217903069"