Sunqur al-Ashqar
Shams al-Din Sunqur al-Ashqar al-Salihi (
Sunqur's rule came to an end with the capture of Sahyun by Qalawun's deputy Turuntay in 1287. Sunqur returned to Cairo, where he was given the highest military ranks and considerable honors and benefits by Qalawun. The latter's son and successor, al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 1290–1293) imprisoned Sunqur and had him executed in 1293 for defying his orders to hand over part of the wealth he ended up controlling after the sultan's earlier execution of Turuntay.
Early career
Sunqur was nicknamed al-Ashqar al-Rumi (lit. 'the blond, the Greek').
During their time in Syria, the Bahri exiles became divided, with one faction, including Sunqur, defecting to the Ayyubid emir of
Along with another Bahri mamluk, Badr al-Din al-Baysari, Sunqur became the most devoted loyalist of Baybars, who had acceded as sultan in late 1260, with Sunqur and al-Baysari referred to in the sources as "the two wings" of Baybars.[6] Baybars built a house for Sunqur next to his own in Cairo in 1267. While its location and specific descriptions of its structure do not exist, it contained an iwan, majlis (private reception room) and a type of qa'a (roofed reception area) called a hurmiyya.[7]
Baybars was succeeded by his son,
Viceroy of Syria
Appointment and sultanic ambitions
Sunqur may have resented al-Sa'id's rule, believing himself better suited to rule than the young sultan. He practically defected from him, when he refused to accompany him back to Cairo. Al-Sa'id died soon after and was succeeded by his brother Solamish, who was seven years old at the time. Sunqur did not act on his ambitions for power, preferring to wait out events. When Qalawun became the atabek al-asakir (commander-in-chief), and thus the practical ruler of the sultanate, Sunqur joined his entourage. He was appointed viceroy of Damascus, the second highest-ranking post in the sultanate, in September 1279. Soon after Sunqur arrived to assume office in Damascus, Qalawun had been elevated to sultan.[5]
While the office of viceroy of Syria brought Sunqur control over substantial wealth, fortresses, and troops, as well as eminence among the other mamluks, he probably viewed the appointment as a move by Qalawun to sideline him from the center of power in Cairo and remove him as a potential rival to the sultanate. He viewed himself as more worthy of the sultanate. His dissatisfaction at the political situation was reflected in his absence from Qalawun's coronation ceremony, whilst all other senior mamluks were in attendance. Nevertheless, in December 1279, Qalawun's name was pronounced in the
Rebellion in Damascus
Under the Ayyubids, Syrian territories were ruled by members of the ruling family, who viewed themselves as equals of their relative, the sultan of Egypt. They frequently attempted to rule independently, a pattern which continued under the early Mamluk sultans.[11] Qalawun's toppling of Solamish in Cairo was taken as a signal by Sunqur to act as sovereign in Syria.[12]
Sunqur responded favorably to the invitation by the Ayyubid emir, al-Mughith Khidr, to join the Syrian opposition to Qalawun. In early 1280, Sunqur declared himself independent, adopting the regnal title al-Malik al-Kamil, leading a royal procession in Damascus, and having his name read in the Friday prayer sermons.
Qalawun initially responded by diplomatic means, sending Salihi emissaries to appeal to the khushdashiyya between Sunqur and Qalawun and invite the former back to obedience. Sunqur maintained his rebellion, attracting the other Salihi mamluks in Damascus to his side. Qalawun dispatched a small force to Palestine, which engaged with a small troop loyal to Sunqur in Gaza. Sunqur's men were put to flight, regrouping in Ramla.[14] A larger force, numbering 6,000 men, was sent by Qalawun against Damascus, likely with the intention to intimidate Sunqur into submission.[15] Sunqur gained a fatwa from the scholar Ibn Khallikan of Damascus, permitting him to challenge the Egyptian army.[16] Sunqur gathered 14,000 mamluks and other troops from across Syria, especially from the Mamluk governors of Aleppo and Baalbek, the Ayyubid governor of Hama, and the Al Fadl, Bedouin Arabs of the Syrian steppe, under Isa ibn Muhanna.[17] Despite their greater numbers, most defected to the Egyptian army during a confrontation at al-Jassora in June 1280.[18] Sunqur, while having fought with distinction, was deprived of his mamluk troops and retreated with the Bedouins of Isa ibn Muhanna and a small coteries of loyalists to the fortress of al-Rahba, along the Euphrates.[19] Damascus surrendered to Qalawun's forces after securing aman (guarantee of safety). Sunqur was formally replaced as na'ib al-saltana of Damascus by one of his former prisoners, the mamluk Lajin.[20]
Control of Sahyun
Mamluk troops soon after pursued Sunqur, who thereafter left Isa ibn Muhanna's company in the Syrian desert for refuge in the castle of
After Qalawun executed Kunduk and other leading emirs in reaction to an assassination plot against him, another leading emir,
In May 1285, Qalawun captured Margat, a Crusader fortress in the coastal mountain south of Sahyun. He proceeded against the Crusaders further, capturing from them the nearby inland fort of Bulunyas and the island fortress of Maraclea. Marqab was preserved and garrisoned. These developments enabled him to focus on finally subduing Sunqur at Sahyun.[28] In 1286/1287 the sultan commissioned his deputy, Turuntay, to besiege Sahyun. Turuntay arrived in early 1287, offering Sunqur the opportunity to surrender peacefully in return for the sultan's pardon. He refused, but relented after the assault against the fortress commenced.[29] Sunqur surrendered Sahyun and its satellite fortresses in April or May 1287.[30]
Return to Cairo and later career
Sunqur arrived with Turuntay in Cairo afterward, where he received a grand reception by Qalalwun, his sons, the family of Baybars, the Mamluk armies, the leading emirs and his fellow Salihi mamluks. The sultan gave him the highest rank, amir mi'a, muqaddam alf (emir of one hundred cavalry, commander of one thousand mamluks). He was given the prestigious honor of quarters in the Cairo Citadel, the seat of the empire, and became an adviser and friend of the sultan, who continued to treat him honorably through the end of his reign in 1290. According to Northrup, Qalawun's "magnanimous" treatment of Sunqur and other senior rivals "was not entirely altruistic". As the sultan still lacked full support among the mamluk factions, he aimed to gain their goodwill by giving Sunqur and the sons of Baybars considerable freedom and benefits.[30]
Sunqur initially enjoyed close ties with Qalawun's successor, his son al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 1290–1293), who promised to restore to him the fortress of Sahyun. When Turuntay, the second-in-command to the sultan, ran afoul of al-Ashraf Khalil, Sunqur inherited his position. However, Clifford holds this favor "spoiled him as it had Turuntay".[31] Wary of Sunqur overstepping his power, al-Ashraf Khalil ordered him to surrender some of the assets of Turuntay, which Sunqur rejected. After initial hesitation to act against Sunqur, al-Ashraf Khalil was persuaded by his advisers to imprison Sunqur.[31] He was executed in 1293.[31][2]
References
- ^ Balog 1969, p. 296.
- ^ a b Yosef 2022, p. 78.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 90.
- ^ Clifford 2013, p. 85, note 7.
- ^ a b c Northrup 1998, p. 91.
- ^ Rabbat 1995, p. 114.
- ^ Rabbat 1995, p. 115.
- ^ Clifford 2013, p. 115.
- ^ Clifford 2013, p. 119.
- ^ Northrup 1998, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Northrup 1998, pp. 92–93.
- ^ a b Clifford 2013, p. 132.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 92.
- ^ Clifford 2013, p. 133.
- ^ Clifford 2013, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 204.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 94.
- ^ Clifford 2013, p. 134.
- ^ Northrup 1998, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 95.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 97.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 101.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 102.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 105.
- ^ Northrup 1998, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 109.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 112.
- ^ Northrup 1998, pp. 130–132.
- ^ Northrup 1998, p. 136.
- ^ a b Northrup 1998, p. 137.
- ^ a b c Clifford 2013, p. 150.
Bibliography
- Balog, Paul (1969). "A dirhem of Al-Kāmil Shams Al-Dīn Sunqur, rebel sultān of Syria, hitherto unrecorded in numismatics (679 H.=1280 A.D.)". Revue Numismatique. 6 (11): 296–299. .
- Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.). State formation and the structure of politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E. Bonn University Press: V and R Unipress. ISBN 978-3-8471-0091-1.
- Northrup, Linda S. (1998). From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.). Franz Steiner. ISBN 3-515-06861-9.
- Rabbat, Nasser O. (1995). The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10124-1.
- Yosef, Koby (2022). "The Names of the Mamluks: Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Solidarity in the Mamluk Sultanate (648-922, 1250-1517)". In Levanoni, Amalia (ed.). Egypt and Syria under Mamluk Rule: Political, Social and Cultural Aspects. Leiden: Brill. pp. 59–118. ISBN 978-90-04-45951-9.