Supercomputer

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Blue Gene/P supercomputer "Intrepid" at Argonne National Laboratory runs 164,000 processor cores using normal data center air conditioning, grouped in 40 racks/cabinets connected by a high-speed 3D torus network.[1][2]
Computing power of the top 1 supercomputer each year, measured in FLOPS

A supercomputer is a type of

million instructions per second (MIPS). Since 2017, supercomputers have existed, which can perform over 1017 FLOPS (a hundred quadrillion FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS).[3] For comparison, a desktop computer has performance in the range of hundreds of gigaFLOPS (1011) to tens of teraFLOPS (1013).[4][5] Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run on Linux-based operating systems.[6] Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.[7]

Supercomputers play an important role in the field of

nuclear weapons, and nuclear fusion). They have been essential in the field of cryptanalysis.[8]

Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s, and for several decades the fastest was made by

massively parallel supercomputers with tens of thousands of off-the-shelf processors became the norm.[9][10]

The US has long been the leader in the supercomputer field, first through Cray's almost uninterrupted dominance of the field, and later through a variety of technology companies. Japan made major strides in the field in the 1980s and 90s, with China becoming increasingly active in the field. As of May 2022, the fastest supercomputer on the

History

A circuit board from the IBM 7030
The CDC 6600. Behind the system console are two of the "arms" of the plus-sign shaped cabinet with the covers opened. Each arm of the machine had up to four such racks. On the right is the cooling system.
A Cray-1 preserved at the Deutsches Museum

In 1960,

disk drive technology.[14] Also, among the first supercomputers was the IBM 7030 Stretch. The IBM 7030 was built by IBM for the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which then in 1955 had requested a computer 100 times faster than any existing computer. The IBM 7030 used transistors, magnetic core memory, pipelined instructions, prefetched data through a memory controller and included pioneering random access disk drives. The IBM 7030 was completed in 1961 and despite not meeting the challenge of a hundredfold increase in performance, it was purchased by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Customers in England and France also bought the computer, and it became the basis for the IBM 7950 Harvest, a supercomputer built for cryptanalysis.[15]

The third pioneering supercomputer project in the early 1960s was the

Manchester University and was designed to operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, about one million instructions per second.[17]

The CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from germanium to silicon transistors. Silicon transistors could run more quickly and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design.[18] Thus, the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times, it was dubbed a supercomputer and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $8 million each.[19][20][21][22]

Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company,

gigaFLOPS, making it the first supercomputer to break the gigaflop barrier.[25]

Massively parallel designs

Blue Gene/L, showing the stacked blades
, each holding many processors

The only computer to seriously challenge the Cray-1's performance in the 1970s was the ILLIAC IV. This machine was the first realized example of a true massively parallel computer, in which many processors worked together to solve different parts of a single larger problem. In contrast with the vector systems, which were designed to run a single stream of data as quickly as possible, in this concept, the computer instead feeds separate parts of the data to entirely different processors and then recombines the results. The ILLIAC's design was finalized in 1966 with 256 processors and offer speed up to 1 GFLOPS, compared to the 1970s Cray-1's peak of 250 MFLOPS. However, development problems led to only 64 processors being built, and the system could never operate more quickly than about 200 MFLOPS while being much larger and more complex than the Cray. Another problem was that writing software for the system was difficult, and getting peak performance from it was a matter of serious effort.

But the partial success of the ILLIAC IV was widely seen as pointing the way to the future of supercomputing. Cray argued against this, famously quipping that "If you were plowing a field, which would you rather use? Two strong oxen or 1024 chickens?"

MIT. The CM-1 used as many as 65,536 simplified custom microprocessors connected together in a network to share data. Several updated versions followed; the CM-5 supercomputer is a massively parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second.[27]

In 1982,

GaAs, a material normally reserved for microwave applications due to its toxicity.[29] Fujitsu's Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a peak speed of 1.7 gigaFLOPS (GFLOPS) per processor.[30][31] The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a peak performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network.[32][33][34] The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations and was ranked the fastest in the world in 1993. The Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two-dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface.[35]

Software development remained a problem, but the CM series sparked off considerable research into this issue. Similar designs using custom hardware were made by many companies, including the

In 1998,

David Bader developed the first Linux supercomputer using commodity parts.[36] While at the University of New Mexico, Bader sought to build a supercomputer running Linux using consumer off-the-shelf parts and a high-speed low-latency interconnection network. The prototype utilized an Alta Technologies "AltaCluster" of eight dual, 333 MHz, Intel Pentium II computers running a modified Linux kernel. Bader ported a significant amount of software to provide Linux support for necessary components as well as code from members of the National Computational Science Alliance (NCSA) to ensure interoperability, as none of it had been run on Linux previously.[37] Using the successful prototype design, he led the development of "RoadRunner," the first Linux supercomputer for open use by the national science and engineering community via the National Science Foundation's National Technology Grid. RoadRunner was put into production use in April 1999. At the time of its deployment, it was considered one of the 100 fastest supercomputers in the world.[37][38] Though Linux-based clusters using consumer-grade parts, such as Beowulf, existed prior to the development of Bader's prototype and RoadRunner, they lacked the scalability, bandwidth, and parallel computing capabilities to be considered "true" supercomputers.[37]

The CPU share of TOP500
Diagram of a three-dimensional torus interconnect used by systems such as Blue Gene, Cray XT3, etc.

Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of two paths. In the

Infiniband systems to three-dimensional torus interconnects.[40][41] The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging direction, e.g. as in the Cyclops64 system.[42][43]

As the price, performance and

Jaguar supercomputer was transformed into Titan by retrofitting CPUs with GPUs.[46][47][48]

High-performance computers have an expected life cycle of about three years before requiring an upgrade.

liquid immersion cooling
.

Special purpose supercomputers

A number of special-purpose systems have been designed, dedicated to a single problem. This allows the use of specially programmed

Deep Crack for breaking the DES cipher.[55]

Energy usage and heat management

The Summit supercomputer was as of November 2018 the fastest supercomputer in the world.[56] With a measured power efficiency of 14.668 GFlops/watt it is also the third most energy efficient in the world.[57]

Throughout the decades, the management of

megawatts (MW) of electricity.[64]
The cost to power and cool the system can be significant, e.g. 4 MW at $0.10/kWh is $400 an hour or about $3.5 million per year.

An IBM HS20 blade

Heat management is a major issue in complex electronic devices and affects powerful computer systems in various ways.

CPU power dissipation issues in supercomputing surpass those of traditional computer cooling technologies. The supercomputing awards for green computing reflect this issue.[66][67][68]

The packing of thousands of processors together inevitably generates significant amounts of

In the

Power 775, released in 2011, has closely packed elements that require water cooling.[70] The IBM Aquasar system uses hot water cooling to achieve energy efficiency, the water being used to heat buildings as well.[71][72]

The energy efficiency of computer systems is generally measured in terms of "

DEGIMA cluster in Nagasaki placing third with 1375 MFLOPS/W.[77]

Because copper wires can transfer energy into a supercomputer with much higher power densities than forced air or circulating refrigerants can remove waste heat,[78] the ability of the cooling systems to remove waste heat is a limiting factor.[79][80] As of 2015, many existing supercomputers have more infrastructure capacity than the actual peak demand of the machine – designers generally conservatively design the power and cooling infrastructure to handle more than the theoretical peak electrical power consumed by the supercomputer. Designs for future supercomputers are power-limited – the thermal design power of the supercomputer as a whole, the amount that the power and cooling infrastructure can handle, is somewhat more than the expected normal power consumption, but less than the theoretical peak power consumption of the electronic hardware.[81]

Software and system management

Operating systems

Since the end of the 20th century,

supercomputer operating systems have undergone major transformations, based on the changes in supercomputer architecture.[82] While early operating systems were custom tailored to each supercomputer to gain speed, the trend has been to move away from in-house operating systems to the adaptation of generic software such as Linux.[83]

Since modern

While in a traditional multi-user computer system

tasking problem for processing and peripheral resources, in a massively parallel system, the job management system needs to manage the allocation of both computational and communication resources, as well as gracefully deal with inevitable hardware failures when tens of thousands of processors are present.[87]

Although most modern supercomputers use Linux-based operating systems, each manufacturer has its own specific Linux-derivative, and no industry standard exists, partly due to the fact that the differences in hardware architectures require changes to optimize the operating system to each hardware design.[82][88]

Software tools and message passing

Wide-angle view of the ALMA correlator[89]

The parallel architectures of supercomputers often dictate the use of special programming techniques to exploit their speed. Software tools for distributed processing include standard

Beowulf
.

In the most common scenario, environments such as

GPGPUs have hundreds of processor cores and are programmed using programming models such as CUDA or OpenCL
.

Moreover, it is quite difficult to debug and test parallel programs. Special techniques need to be used for testing and debugging such applications.

Distributed supercomputing

Opportunistic approaches

Example architecture of a grid computing system connecting many personal computers over the internet

Opportunistic supercomputing is a form of networked grid computing whereby a "super virtual computer" of many loosely coupled volunteer computing machines performs very large computing tasks. Grid computing has been applied to a number of large-scale embarrassingly parallel problems that require supercomputing performance scales. However, basic grid and cloud computing approaches that rely on volunteer computing cannot handle traditional supercomputing tasks such as fluid dynamic simulations.[91]

The fastest grid computing system is the volunteer computing project Folding@home (F@h). As of April 2020, F@h reported 2.5 exaFLOPS of x86 processing power. Of this, over 100 PFLOPS are contributed by clients running on various GPUs, and the rest from various CPU systems.[92]

The Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform hosts a number of volunteer computing projects. As of February 2017, BOINC recorded a processing power of over 166 petaFLOPS through over 762 thousand active Computers (Hosts) on the network.[93]

As of October 2016,

Mersenne Prime search achieved about 0.313 PFLOPS through over 1.3 million computers.[94]
The PrimeNet server has supported GIMPS's grid computing approach, one of the earliest volunteer computing projects, since 1997.

Quasi-opportunistic approaches

Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing is a form of distributed computing whereby the "super virtual computer" of many networked geographically disperse computers performs computing tasks that demand huge processing power.[95] Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing aims to provide a higher quality of service than opportunistic grid computing by achieving more control over the assignment of tasks to distributed resources and the use of intelligence about the availability and reliability of individual systems within the supercomputing network. However, quasi-opportunistic distributed execution of demanding parallel computing software in grids should be achieved through the implementation of grid-wise allocation agreements, co-allocation subsystems, communication topology-aware allocation mechanisms, fault tolerant message passing libraries and data pre-conditioning.[95]

High-performance computing clouds

Cloud computing with its recent and rapid expansions and development have grabbed the attention of high-performance computing (HPC) users and developers in recent years. Cloud computing attempts to provide HPC-as-a-service exactly like other forms of services available in the cloud such as software as a service, platform as a service, and infrastructure as a service. HPC users may benefit from the cloud in different angles such as scalability, resources being on-demand, fast, and inexpensive. On the other hand, moving HPC applications have a set of challenges too. Good examples of such challenges are virtualization overhead in the cloud, multi-tenancy of resources, and network latency issues. Much research is currently being done to overcome these challenges and make HPC in the cloud a more realistic possibility.[96][97][98][99]

In 2016, Penguin Computing, Parallel Works, R-HPC,

virtualized login node. POD computing nodes are connected via non-virtualized 10 Gbit/s Ethernet or QDR InfiniBand networks. User connectivity to the POD data center ranges from 50 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s.[100] Citing Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, Penguin Computing argues that virtualization of compute nodes is not suitable for HPC. Penguin Computing has also criticized that HPC clouds may have allocated computing nodes to customers that are far apart, causing latency that impairs performance for some HPC applications.[101]

Performance measurement

Capability versus capacity

Supercomputers generally aim for the maximum in capability computing rather than capacity computing. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a single large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can, e.g. a very complex

Capacity computing, in contrast, is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve a few somewhat large problems or many small problems.[102] Architectures that lend themselves to supporting many users for routine everyday tasks may have a lot of capacity but are not typically considered supercomputers, given that they do not solve a single very complex problem.[102]

Performance metrics

Top supercomputer speeds: logscale speed over 60 years

In general, the speed of supercomputers is measured and

Petascale supercomputers can process one quadrillion (1015) (1000 trillion) FLOPS. Exascale is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (1018) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS). However, The performance of a supercomputer can be severely impacted by fluctuation brought on by elements like system load, network traffic, and concurrent processes, as mentioned by Brehm and Bruhwiler (2015).[104]

No single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry.[105] The FLOPS measurement is either quoted based on the theoretical floating point performance of a processor (derived from manufacturer's processor specifications and shown as "Rpeak" in the TOP500 lists), which is generally unachievable when running real workloads, or the achievable throughput, derived from the LINPACK benchmarks and shown as "Rmax" in the TOP500 list.[106] The LINPACK benchmark typically performs LU decomposition of a large matrix.[107] The LINPACK performance gives some indication of performance for some real-world problems, but does not necessarily match the processing requirements of many other supercomputer workloads, which for example may require more memory bandwidth, or may require better integer computing performance, or may need a high performance I/O system to achieve high levels of performance.[105]

The TOP500 list

Top 20 supercomputers in the world (June 2014)

Since 1993, the fastest supercomputers have been ranked on the TOP500 list according to their LINPACK benchmark results. The list does not claim to be unbiased or definitive, but it is a widely cited current definition of the "fastest" supercomputer available at any given time.

This is a recent list of the computers which appeared at the top of the TOP500 list,[108] and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating. In 2018, Lenovo became the world's largest provider for the TOP500 supercomputers with 117 units produced.[109]

Top 10 positions of the 60th TOP500 in November 2022[110]
Rank (previous) Rmax

Rpeak (PetaFLOPS)

Name Model CPU cores Accelerator (e.g. GPU) cores Interconnect Manufacturer Site

country

Year Operating

system

1 Steady 1,102.00

1,685.65

Frontier
HPE Cray EX235a
591,872

(9,248 × 64-core

Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C
@2.0 GHz)

36,992 × 220 AMD Instinct MI250X Slingshot-11 HPE Oak Ridge National Laboratory
 United States
2022
HPE Cray OS
)
2 Steady 442.010

537.212

Fugaku Supercomputer Fugaku 7,630,848

(158,976 × 48-core Fujitsu A64FX @2.2 GHz)

0 Tofu interconnect D Fujitsu RIKEN Center for Computational Science
 Japan
2020 Linux (RHEL)
3 Steady 309.10

428.70

LUMI
HPE Cray EX235a
150,528

(2,352 × 64-core

Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C
@2.0 GHz)

9,408 × 220 AMD Instinct MI250X Slingshot-11 HPE
EuroHPC JU Kajaani
 Finland
2022
HPE Cray OS
)
4 New entry 174.70

255.75

Leonardo BullSequana XH2000 110,592

(3,456 × 32-core Xeon Platinum 8358 @2.6 GHz)

13,824 × 108
Nvidia Ampere
A100
Nvidia HDR100
Infiniband
Atos
EuroHPC JU Bologna
 Italy
2022 Linux
5 Decrease (4) 148.60

200.795

Summit IBM Power SystemAC922 202,752

(9,216 × 22-core IBM POWER9 @3.07 GHz)

27,648 × 80 Nvidia Tesla V100 InfiniBand EDR IBM Oak Ridge National Laboratory
 United States
2018 Linux (RHEL 7.4)
6 Decrease (5) 94.640

125.712

Sierra IBM Power SystemS922LC 190,080

(8,640 × 22-core IBM POWER9 @3.1 GHz)

17,280 × 80 Nvidia Tesla V100 InfiniBand EDR IBM Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
 United States
2018 Linux (RHEL)
7 Decrease (6) 93.015

125.436

SunwayTaihuLight Sunway MPP 10,649,600

(40,960 × 260-core Sunway SW26010 @1.45 GHz)

0 Sunway[111] NRCPC
National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi
 China[111]
2016 Linux (RaiseOS 2.0.5)
8 Decrease (7) 70.87

93.75

Perlmutter
HPE Cray EX235n
? × ?-core AMD Epyc 7763 64-core @2.45 GHz ? × 108
Nvidia Ampere
A100
Slingshot-10 HPE NERSC
 United States
2021
HPE Cray OS
)
9 Decrease (8) 63.460

79.215

Selene Nvidia 71,680

(1,120 × 64-core AMD

Epyc 7742
@2.25 GHz)

4,480 × 108
Nvidia Ampere
A100
Mellanox HDR Infiniband Nvidia Nvidia
 United States
2020
Ubuntu 20.04
.1)
10 Decrease (9) 61.445

100.679

Tianhe-2A TH-IVB-FEP 427,008

(35,584 × 12-core Intel Xeon E5–2692 v2 @2.2 GHz)

35,584 × Matrix-2000[112] 128-core TH Express-2 NUDT National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou
 China
2018[113] Linux (Kylin)

Applications

The stages of supercomputer application may be summarized in the following table:

Decade Uses and computer involved
1970s Weather forecasting, aerodynamic research (Cray-1).[114]
1980s Probabilistic analysis,[115] radiation shielding modeling[116] (CDC Cyber).
1990s Brute force code breaking (EFF DES cracker).[117]
2000s 3D nuclear test simulations as a substitute for legal conduct
ASCI Q).[118]
2010s Molecular dynamics simulation (
Tianhe-1A)[119]
2020s Scientific research for outbreak prevention/Electrochemical Reaction Research[120]

The IBM

Blue Gene/P computer has been used to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6 billion neurons with approximately 9 trillion connections. The same research group also succeeded in using a supercomputer to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to the entirety of a rat's brain.[121]

Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate.[122]

In 2011, the challenges and difficulties in pushing the envelope in supercomputing were underscored by IBM's abandonment of the Blue Waters petascale project.[123]

The Advanced Simulation and Computing Program currently uses supercomputers to maintain and simulate the United States nuclear stockpile.[124]

In early 2020, COVID-19 was front and center in the world. Supercomputers used different simulations to find compounds that could potentially stop the spread. These computers run for tens of hours using multiple paralleled running CPU's to model different processes.[125][126][127]

Taiwania 3 is a Taiwanese supercomputer which assisted the scientific community in fighting COVID-19. It was launched in 2020 and has a capacity of about two to three PetaFLOPS.

Development and trends

Distribution of TOP500 supercomputers among different countries, in November 2015

In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1 exaFLOP (1018 or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer.[128] Erik P. DeBenedictis of Sandia National Laboratories has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (1021 or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full weather modeling, which could cover a two-week time span accurately.[129][130][131] Such systems might be built around 2030.[132]

Many Monte Carlo simulations use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data set; particularly, integro-differential equations describing physical transport processes, the random paths, collisions, and energy and momentum depositions of neutrons, photons, ions, electrons, etc. The next step for microprocessors may be into the third dimension; and specializing to Monte Carlo, the many layers could be identical, simplifying the design and manufacture process.[133]

The cost of operating high performance supercomputers has risen, mainly due to increasing power consumption. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer required in the range of 100 kilowatts, in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required between 1 and 2 megawatts.[134] A 2010 study commissioned by DARPA identified power consumption as the most pervasive challenge in achieving Exascale computing.[135] At the time a megawatt per year in energy consumption cost about 1 million dollars. Supercomputing facilities were constructed to efficiently remove the increasing amount of heat produced by modern multi-core central processing units. Based on the energy consumption of the Green 500 list of supercomputers between 2007 and 2011, a supercomputer with 1 exaFLOPS in 2011 would have required nearly 500 megawatts. Operating systems were developed for existing hardware to conserve energy whenever possible.[136] CPU cores not in use during the execution of a parallelized application were put into low-power states, producing energy savings for some supercomputing applications.[137]

The increasing cost of operating supercomputers has been a driving factor in a trend toward bundling of resources through a distributed supercomputer infrastructure. National supercomputing centers first emerged in the US, followed by Germany and Japan. The European Union launched the Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE) with the aim of creating a persistent pan-European supercomputer infrastructure with services to support scientists across the European Union in porting, scaling and optimizing supercomputing applications.[134] Iceland built the world's first zero-emission supercomputer. Located at the Thor Data Center in Reykjavík, Iceland, this supercomputer relies on completely renewable sources for its power rather than fossil fuels. The colder climate also reduces the need for active cooling, making it one of the greenest facilities in the world of computers.[138]

Funding supercomputer hardware also became increasingly difficult. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer cost about 10 million euros, while in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required an investment of between 40 and 50 million euros.[134] In the 2000s national governments put in place different strategies to fund supercomputers. In the UK the national government funded supercomputers entirely and high performance computing was put under the control of a national funding agency. Germany developed a mixed funding model, pooling local state funding and federal funding.[134]

In fiction

Examples of supercomputers in fiction include

Deep Thought. The Cray X-MP was mentioned as the supercomputer used to sequence the DNA extracted from preserved parasites in the Jurassic Park
series.

See also

References

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