Surf culture

Surf culture includes the people, language, fashion, and lifestyle surrounding the sport of surfing. The history of surfing began with the ancient Polynesians. That initial culture directly influenced modern surfing, which began to flourish and evolve in the early 20th century, with its popularity peaking during the 1950s and 1960s (principally in Hawaii, Australia, and California). It has affected music, fashion, literature, film, art, and youth jargon in popular culture. The number of surfers throughout the world continues to increase as the culture spreads.

Surfers' desire for the best possible waves to ride with their

The prevailing narrative of surfing (heʻe nalu; literally, wave sliding)^[6] history places its origins in the South Pacific, where the practice became ritualized over the course of centuries. The consensus among anthropologists and historians is that surfing was practiced throughout Polynesia and elsewhere in the Pacific in premodern times,^[7] and that surfing has been culturally significant in Hawaiʻi for at least 1,500 years.^[8]

Surfing culture in Hawaiʻi is very different now to what it was in 1778 when Captain

In the early 1900s, Alexander Hume Ford and

The worldwide diffusion of surfing from Hawaiʻi also began in the early 20th century, when Freeth and Kahanamoku gave demonstrations in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Freeth and Kahanamoku were the original ambassadors of surfing; Freeth moved to southern California in 1907, where he demonstrated the sport at many beaches, including Venice and Redondo. Beginning in the 1960s, surfing was spread further by devoted surfers, mostly from California and Australia, searching for new wave breaks in far-flung places.^[17]

Spirituality

Surfing was of profound religious importance to the ancient Hawaiians. The study of waves was called ka nalu and the memory of notable surfing feats was preserved in chants and songs (meles) passed down since the 15th century. Many chiefs had a personal surf chant that celebrated their surfing prowess; this could be performed only by a professional chanter, one of which every chief maintained in his retinue.^[19] Despite claims by some historians that surfing was reserved strictly for the aliʻi or Hawaiian hereditary rulers, Hawaiians of all classes and sexes, young or old, practiced the art.^[20]

After King

Since ancient times among the Native Hawaiians, the appointed kahuna (priest) laid an offering of fish, said prayers, and performed other religious rites by a tree before it was felled to make a surfboard.^[12] The ancient Hawaiians believed that the trees they made their surfboards (papa heʻe nalu) from had souls (ʻuhane),^[22][23] and used the trunks of koa trees to build them. Their pae poʻo (bodyboards)^{[24][note 1]} as well as kikoʻo and alaia surfboards were made from koa; however, olo, the longest and heaviest surfboards, were made from the lighter and more buoyant wood of the wiliwili, and were used exclusively by the nobility.^[25]

Heiaus are Hawaiian places of worship where sacrifices were offered, they include actual temples as well as natural objects or features of the landscape. Every activity in Hawaiian culture was associated with a cult devoted to a deity or the activity itself, such as surfing. ^[26][27] When the ocean was calm and there were no waves to surf, the kahuna lashed the surface of the sea with long strands of beach morning glory (pohuehue) vines and chanted, in unison with the surfers:

The chant itself was called pohuehue, after the morning glory vines.^[28]

At

Various surfing communities organize and take part in "paddle outs", i.e., memorial services for fallen surfers, sometimes on the anniversary of passing such as the

Like men, women surfed in ancient Polynesia. This was especially documented in the waters around Hawaii, where children, women, and men surfed. Queen Kaʻahumanu, the most powerful wife of Kamehameha, favored a surf break known today as Castles, an outer reef at Waikiki on the south shore of Oʻahu that was forbidden (kapu) to everyone except royalty (aliʻi). Standing 6 feet tall and weighing over three hundred pounds,^[34] Ka'ahumanu had the physical strength and the skill to paddle an olo board and catch the large waves that break at Castles on a south swell and ride them.^[35] Until the 1830s women were still actively engaged in Hawaiian surfing, but this changed after American missionaries had come to the islands and taught the Hawaiians that it was improper for women to surf. Women did not begin surfing around the Hawaiian islands again until the late 1800s. By the end of World War II surfing would have a major revival that increased its popularity and participating membership. Women were encouraged to take up surfing by early water sports innovators Duke Kahanamoku and Tom Blake. Blake suggested that surfing would help women to keep their feminine figures.^[36]

There would be another rise in the popularity of women's surfing just a decade later as women increasingly played roles in surfing films. Examples of this were the Gidget movie trilogy and TV series based on the book of the same title. In spite of this new popularity, the underlying theme of these works was that women should be viewers of surfing rather than participants in it.^[36]

Due to the negative reactions women received because of their involvement in surfing, being labeled as 'masculine' or 'tomboys', women began to take ownership of their participation. This is seen in their working together to organize surfing competitions for women. There had been competitions for women held in the 1950s and 1960s but these were amateur events. The 1970s and 1980s saw a shift in this state of affairs as women entered into the world of professional surf competitions. This caused a positive change in the style with which women surfed at the time by focusing more on their power and speed as athletes rather than being aesthetically pleasing to the viewer. Today, professional female surfers continue to have a difficult time being recognized as athletes, and must deal with continued objectification and sexualization by the surf media.^[37]

Professional female surfers have also noted that they face pay inequality when compared to their male counterparts—women do not win prize monies equal to those won by men in contests. These women have also indicated that the issue of pay equality arises when it comes to corporate sponsorships by surf brands.^[37] Brands prioritize hiring women surfers who appear more conventionally attractive rather than those more talented.^[38]

There is currently a push from some surfing groups to include women of color more prominently in the overall culture of surfing. One of these organizations is "Textured Waves", a surfing collective dedicated to women of color.^[39] Their goal is to improve the accessibility of the sport and the acceptance of individuals who do not necessarily fit the "traditional" image of what a surfer looks like.

Beach bunnies

A beach bunny is a general North American popular culture term for a young woman who spends her free time at the beach.^[40][41] In surf culture it may also refer to a female surfer. Beach bunnies are known for the amount of time they spend sun tanning and are usually represented wearing bikinis.^[42] Examples in film and television include Beach Party and Gidget. The male equivalent is beach bum.^[42]

Diversity

In recent years, diversity in surfing has come to the fore as a new issue for the surfing community to handle. With the professional surfing world being led by Brazilian surfers like Italo Ferreira and Gabriel Medina, and the presence of athletes such as Michael February (the first black African surfer on the Championship Tour), surfing's professional realm may seem to be moving in the direction of inclusiveness. However, the same is not necessarily true for the world's casual surfers in places like the United States. Organizations such as City Surf Project in San Francisco^[43] are dedicated to bringing the sport of surfing to underserved youth of black and Latino backgrounds. Jeff Williams, who is the co-president of the Los Angeles Black Surfer's Collective (a similar organization to CSP), summarized the need for these programs by stating that "anytime you try to talk about diversity in surfing, it all boils down to access",^[44] meaning that the financial and cultural hurdles of getting in the water are what keep some individuals from minority communities from being able to participate in the sport.

Meanwhile, the surfing world is witnessing surf culture in places that most surfers have been unaware of up to this point. One example of this come's from Selema Masekela's new book project, AfroSurf,^[45] which details the prevalence of surfing and surf culture in Africa. South African surfing has long been a significant part of global surf culture, but surfing in the rest of Africa has been primarily seen as a tourist attraction, rather than a local culture, until now; "these places are adopting surfing as their own and then injecting their culture into it," according to Masekela.^[46]

Big wave culture

The non-competitive adventure activity of riding the biggest waves possible (known as "rhino hunting") is popular with some surfers. A practice popularized in the 1990s has seen big wave surfing revolutionized, as surfers use personal watercraft to tow them out to a position where they can catch waves previously unrideable because of the speed at which they travel (see tow-in surfing). Some waves reach speeds of over 60 km/h; personal watercraft enable surfers to catch up to the speed of the wave, thereby making them rideable. Personal watercraft also allow surfers to survive wipeouts. In many instances surfers would not otherwise survive the battering of the "sets" (groups of waves together). This spectacular activity is extremely popular with television crews, but because such waves rarely occur in heavily populated regions, and usually only a very long way out to sea on outer reefs, few spectators see such events directly.

Though surfers come from all walks of life, the beach bum / surf bum^[47][48] stereotype comes from the exuberant enthusiasm for their sport that surfers often demonstrate. Dedication and perfectionism are also qualities that surfers may bring to what some observers have traditionally regarded as a commitment to a lifestyle as well as a sport.^[49]

For specific surf spots, the state of the ocean tide can play a significant role in the quality of waves or hazards of surfing there. Tidal variations vary greatly among the various global surfing regions, and the effect the tide has on specific areas can vary greatly among the individual spots within a given area. Locations such as Bali, Panama, and Ireland experience 2-3 meter tide fluctuations, whereas in Hawaii the difference between high and low tide is typically less than one meter.

Each surf break is different, since the underwater topography of one place is unlike any other. At beach breaks, the sandbanks can change shape from week to week, so it takes commitment to get good waves.

The saying "You should have been here yesterday" became a commonly used phrase to refer to bad conditions.^[50] Nowadays, however, surf forecasting is aided by advances in information technology, whereby mathematical modeling graphically depicts the size and direction of swells moving around the globe.

The quest for perfect surf has given rise to a field of tourism based on the surfing adventure. Yacht charters and

Along with the rarity of what surfers consider truly perfect surf conditions (due to changing weather and surf condition) and the inevitable hunt for great waves, surfers often become dedicated to their sport in a way that precludes a more traditional life. Surfing, instead, becomes their lifestyle.

The goals of those who practice the sport vary, but throughout its history, many have seen surfing as more than a sport, as an opportunity to harness the waves and to relax and forget about their daily routines. Surfers have veered from even this beaten path, and foregone the traditional goals of

Even though waves break everywhere along a coast, good surf spots are rare. A surf break that forms great surfable waves may easily become a coveted commodity, especially if the wave breaks there only rarely. If this break is near a large population center with many surfers, territorialism often arises. Regular surfers who live around a desirable surf break may often guard it jealously, hence the expression "locals only".^[53] The expression is common in beach towns, especially those that attract seasonal vacationers who live outside the area. Localism is expressed when surfers are involved in verbal or physical threats or abuse to deter people from surfing at certain spots. It is based in part on the belief that fewer people mean more waves per surfer.

Some locals have been known to form loose gangs that surf in a certain break or beach and fiercely protect their "territory" from outsiders.^[2] These surfers are often referred to as "surf punks" or "surf nazis". The local surfer gangs in Southern California (

The Lunada Bay Boys (in Palos Verdes Estates, California) became the subject of a class action lawsuit in 2016.^[56]

Wolfpak

The Wolfpak was originally composed of a few surfers from

Wolfpak began in 2001 when leader Kala Alexander moved to the North Shore in search of job opportunities, and found disorganization and lack of respect in the surf lineup at the surf reef break, Pipeline. Alexander found it necessary to dictate who would surf Pipeline to both preserve the value, and also protect surfers from the reef's potentially life-threatening waves.^[59]

The waves at Pipeline can reach over 6 meters and its powerful disposition has taken the lives of professional surfers. If a visiting surfer collided with another surfer, this could result in serious harm or death. These observations led to the Wolfpak's proactive enforcement on the North Shore.^[60]

The Wolfpak's territorial enforcement has drawn attention because of its violent means. In an incident where a tourist cut off a friend of Alexander's in a typical 2 metres (6.6 ft) swell, the Wolfpak leader assaulted the tourist.^[60] Comments from anonymous locals show that the presence of Wolfpak is well perceived, if not intimidating. Some locals^[who?] who hold similar values of cultural respect support what the members are trying to do.^[59]

Alexander does not view Wolfpak as a gang, but says they look out for every local

The Bra Boys are a popular surf gang founded in

Surfing (particularly in Southern California) has its own sociolect, which has comingled with

The

Look up Surf slang in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Issues affecting surfers

Environmental damage and increasing development may continue to increase pressure on the sport.

Some of these stresses may be overcome by building of artificial reefs for surfing. Several have been built in recent years (one is at Cables in Western Australia), and there is widespread enthusiasm in the global surfing community for additional projects. However, environmental opposition and rigorous coastal permitting regulations is dampening prospects for building such reefs in some countries, such as the United States.

Surfing and environmentalism

Surfing, as a sport, is heavily dependent on a healthy environment. As a result, interest groups have blossomed to influence the utilization of coastal properties relevant to surfing. There is conflict between surfers and other user groups over the allocation of coastal resources.[69] Common to most disputes are two issues, disposal of sewage and toxic waste into near shore waters and the formation of harbors, breakwaters and jetties. Sewage and toxic waste almost always affects mammals in a negative way. Coastal construction and engineering projects can have either good or bad effects on surf breaks. While some sources suspect the effectiveness of surfing environmentalist groups,^[70] notable victories have been achieved by surfers championing their issues. Some examples of these victories include:

• In 1991 the
  Louisiana-Pacific Corporation and the Simpson Paper Company resulted in the creation of the Humboldt Area Recreation Enhancement and Water Quality Fund and $50 million was spent by the mills to reduce ocean discharges at their facilities near Eureka, California.^[71]
• In 2008 the U.S. Department of Commerce upheld a
  California State Highway 241 that would have impacted the popular and world-renowned surf site Trestles near San Clemente, California. This decision was a victory for surf environmentalists who led a grassroots campaign to "Save Trestles, Stop the Toll Road." At the time federal officials received 35,000 written statements on the issue, most in support of upholding the decision of the CCC.^[72]
• A global example can be found in the case of the newly formed World Surfing Reserve at Ericeira, Portugal that was dedicated in October 2011 and endorsed by Portuguese President Aníbal Cavaco Silva. President Silva "acknowledged the significance of preserving the surfing coastline ... for the vitality of Portugal's economy, the health of the coastal and marine environment, and maintaining a high quality of life for the residents."^[73] The preservation of this pristine surf spot was accomplished by the Save the Waves Coalition and its World Surfing Reserves program whose goal is to, "proactively identifies, designates and preserves outstanding waves, surf zones and their surrounding environments, around the world...."^[74]

Surf tourism

The surf industry is a billion dollar industry whose popularity as a recreational sport has gained momentum in many coastal areas around the world over the past decades.

• Failure to create adequate levels of employment and income
• Loss of local skills and failure to provide skilled jobs for local population
• Labor exploitation
• Inequitable distribution of the costs and benefits of tourism
• Fast, unstable development of infrastructure which can cause beach erosion and safety and health problems
• Improper
  (ocean)
  pollution
• Lack of political will to pursue sustainable tourism
• Lack of resources both human and economic
• Central and local government corruption
• Short-term focus undermining long-term goals for development ^[77]

Some of the positive impacts of tourism relevant to surf dominant communities include:

• The extent of linkages to the domestic economy
• The creation of employment
• Fostering of genuine appropriate technology transfer
• Generation of jobs for skilled labor as well as local managers, technicians, and personnel
• Equitable social, sectorial and regional distribution of costs and benefits
• Coordination of government policies and programs for locals and foreign visitors
• Infrastructure and incentives ^[77]

Surfing art

Surf graphics

"Surf graphics" is the art style associated with the surfing subculture in posters, flyers, T-shirts and logos. It is heavily influenced by skate art,^[78] Kustom Kulture and tiki culture. Popular artists in the genre are Drew Brophy, Damian Fulton, Rick Griffin, Bill Ogden and Jim Phillips.

Surf music

Surf culture is reflected in

Many people have incorporated the free spirited and hippie nature of many surfing lifestyles into their paintings and murals such as the Surfing Madonna mosaic in Encinitas. Well known artists included Damian Fulton, Rick Reitveld and Phil Roberts.

Fashion

Surfwear is a popular style of casual clothing, inspired by surf culture. Many surf-related

International Surfing Day celebrates the sport and lifestyle on June 20.

Surfing contests

Competitive surfing is a comparison sport. Riders, competing in pairs or small groups, are allocated a certain amount of time to ride waves and display their prowess and mastery of the craft. Competitors are then judged according to how competently the wave is ridden, including the level of difficulty, as well as frequency of maneuvers. There is a professional surfing world surfing championship series held annually at surf breaks around the world.

Although competitive surfing has become an extremely popular and lucrative activity, both for its participants and its sponsors, the sport does not have its origins as a competitive pursuit. It is common to hear debate rage between purists of the sport, who still maintain the ideal of "soul surfing", and surfers who engage in the competitive and, consequently, commercial side of the activity.^[82] An organisation called the Spirit of Surfing has chosen not to accept surf label sponsorship, since an association of that sort could detract from the sentiment they wish to promote.

Surfing organizations

• Surfrider Foundation
• World Surf League
• Pleasure Point Night Fighters
• SurfAid International

Spin-offs & influences

Boardsports

Surfers developed the

Business research on the evolution of multiple boardsports shows that multiple boardsport practices developed their own identity separate from surfing, and became distinct markets with their brands, consumers, and regulations.[83]

Surfing in multimedia

Films about surfing

The surf culture is reflected in film. Bruce Brown's classic movie

, who lost an arm at age 13 in a 2003 shark attack in Hawaii; a 2018 documentary, Bethany Hamilton: Unstoppable, explores Hamilton's adult life.

Some film events include the

New York Surfing Film Festival

.

TV documentary series about surfing

• This Is Your Life presents Duke Kahanamoku (1957)
• NRG (1997)
• "Surfing 50 States" (2006)
• "I'm a Big Wave Surfer" [MTV's True Life] (2004)
• "Bra Boys: Blood is Thicker than Water (2007)

Print media

Surfing magazines

• Surfer's Journal
• The Surfer's Path
• Tracks
• Australia's Surfing Life
• Pitpilot magazine
• Wave Action Surf Magazine
• Surfer Magazine
• SurfGirl
• Surfing Magazine
• Zigzag
• White Horses

Surfing in fiction

The novel Gidget (originally published in 1957 as Gidget, The Little Girl with Big Ideas) by Frederick Kohner is a fictional first-person account of Franziska Hofer's experiences with surf culture in Malibu during the 50s. The author drew inspiration for his novel on the similar real-life experiences of his daughter, Kathy Kohner-Zuckerman.^[89] It was later adapted into the film Gidget (1959).

Tapping the Source (1984) by Kem Nunn was one of the first novels to written about surf culture in a realistic way.^[90] Considered the pioneering work of the "surf noir" subgenre,^[91] it won silver in the California Book Award for First Fiction^[92] and earned Nunn a National Book Award finalist for First Work of Fiction.^[93] Nunn would write several other surf-themed novels, including Dogs of Winter (1997) and Tijuana Straits (2004).^[94]

Surfing in non-fiction

Conceptual metaphor

The word "surf" is polysemous; having multiple, related meanings. "Surfing" the World Wide Web is the act of following hyperlinks. The phrase "surfing the Internet" was first popularized in print by Jean Armour Polly, a librarian, in an article called "Surfing the INTERNET", published in the Wilson Library Bulletin in June 1992.

Popular

• Finney, B. (1996). Surfing: A History of the Ancient Hawaiian Sport.
  ISBN 9780876545942
  .
• Booth, D. (2001). Australian Beach Cultures: The History of Sun, Sand, and Surf.
  ISBN 9780714681788
  .
• Holmes Coleman, S. (February 7, 2004). Eddie Would Go: The Story of Eddie Aikau, Hawaiian Hero and Pioneer of Big Wave Surfing.
  ISBN 9780312327187
  .
• Blair, J. (1983). The Illustrated Discography of Surf Music (1961–1965), Riverside, California.
• Finney, B.; Margan, F. (1970). A Pictorial History of Surfing. Paul Hamlyn, Sydney.
• Wardlaw, L. (1991). Cowabunga: The Complete Book of Surfing. Avon Books, New York.
• Young, N. (1983). The History of Surfing. Palm Beach Press.
• Kampion, D. (2003). Stoked! A History of Surf Culture. Gibbs Smith, Publisher.
• Colburn, B.; Finney, B.; Stallings, T.; Stecyk, C.; Stillman, D.; Wolfe, T (2002). Surf Culture: The Art History of Surfing. Laguna Art Museum in association with Ginko Press.
• Finnegan, William (2015). Barbarian Days: A Surfing Life. Penguin Books.

Natural science

• Scarfe, et al. (2003), The Science of Surfing Waves and Surfing Breaks, Scripps Institution of Oceanography Technical Report.
• Neville de Mestre, Mathematics and bodysurfing, Faculty of Information Technology, Bond University.
• Pengzhi, L. et al., A numerical study of breaking waves in the surf zone, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University.
• Waves and Beaches,
  Anchor Doubleday. (Science Study Series
  )
• Cool, NT, The Wetsand Wavecast Guide to Surf Forecasting: A Simple Approach to Planning the Perfect Sessions
• Massel, SR, Ocean Surface Waves: Their Physics and Prediction
• Flynn, PJ (1987), "Waves of Semiosis: Surfing's Iconic Progression", The American Journal of Semiotics
• M Stranger (1999), "The Aesthetics of Risk: A Study of Surfing", International Review for the Sociology of Sport, irs.sagepub.com
• Rinehart, RE. Sydnor, S. (2003), To the Extreme: Alternative Sports, Inside and Out, State University of New York Press
• Butts, SE. (2001), "Good to the last drop! Understanding surfer motivations", Sociology of Sport, physed.otago.ac.nz
• Beattie, K. (2001), Sick, "Filthy, and Delirious: surf film and video and the documentary mode", Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, Vol. 15, No. 3.
• Osmond, G. Phillips, MG. O'Neill, M. (2006), "Putting up your Dukes: Statues Social Memory and Duke Paoa Kahanamoku"^{[permanent dead link]}, International Journal of the History of Sport, Taylor & Francis
• Rider, R., Hangin' ten: The common-pool resource problem of surfing^{[dead link]}, College of Arts and Sciences, Economics Program, California State University, San Marcos, California, 92096-0001, U.S.
• Rutsky, RL (1999), "Surfing the Other: Ideology on the Beach", Film Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 4.
• Scott, P.(2003), "We shall Fight on the Seas and the Oceans ... We shall: Commodification, Localism and Violence", MC: a journal of media and culture, Vol. 6, No.1.
• Ormrod, J. (1978), "'Just the lemon next to the pie': Apocalypse, History and the Limits of Myth in Big Wednesday", Manchester Metropolitan University.
• Buckley, RC. (2002), "Surf tourism and sustainable development in Indo-Pacific islands: I. The industry and the islands". Journal of Sustainable Tourism
• Buckley, RC. (2002), "Surf tourism and sustainable development in Indo-Pacific islands: II. Recreational Capacity Management and Case Study", Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 10, No. 5.
• Stephen Wayne Hull (1976), A Sociological Study of the Surfing Subculture in the Santa Cruz Area, Masters Thesis, Department of Sociology, San Jose State University.
• Crawford, C. Waves of Transformation, Masters thesis.
• Lueras, Leonard. "Surfing, the Ultimate Pleasure". Honolulu: Emphasis International, 1984.
• Ehrlich, JN, "The Search: Issues of Play, Identification, Agency, and Deviance in the Absence of Mainstream Sports: Towards a Discovery of the Social Meaning of the Sport of Surfing", Honors Thesis for the Undergraduate Research Program in the Department of Sociology at the University of California, Irvine.
• Robin Canniford (2006), "Civilising Surfers: Exploring Subculture Through Historical Consumer Research", PhD Thesis.
• Canniford, R. & Shankar, A., "Marketing the Savage", Book Chapter in Cova, B., Shankar, A. and Kozinets, R. (2007) Consumer Tribes: Theory, Practice and Prospects, Oxford: Elsevier
• Canniford, R. & Ormrod, J., "Surf Soundtracks", European Association for Consumer Research Conference, University of Bocconi Milan 2007.
• Evers, C. (2006), How to Surf", Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 30, No. 3.
• Evers, C. (2006), Locals Only! Conference Proceedings, Everyday Multiculturalism, Macquarie University.
• Evers, C. (2004), "Men who Surf", Cultural Studies Review, 10, No. 1.
• Evers, C. (2005), "Becoming-Man Becoming-Wave", Doctoral Thesis, University of Sydney, Australia
• Warren, A. (2006) "Ripping waves: exploring the surf as a natural domain for young men", Honours Thesis: School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, Australia.
• Waitt, G and Warren, A. (2008), "Talking shit over a brew after a good session with your mates: surfing, space and masculinity", Australian Geographer 39(3), pp. 353–365.

Philosophical

• Kotler, Steven (2008) West of Jesus: Surfing, Science, and the Origins of Belief.

Graphic art

Main article: Surf art

See also

• Surfing
• History of surfing
• World surfing champion
• List of surfing topics
• List of surfers
• List of surfing records
• Surf forecasting

Notes

1. ^ According to John R. Kukeakalani Clark, the word pae po`o, meaning to "ride [a wave] head-first", was coined by Hawaiian surfers in Waikiki around 1900 in reference to bodysurfing or surfing with a small wooden bodyboard. The word was often shortened to pae po. The spelling used today, paipo, was coined by Hawaiian surfer Wally Froiseth.

References

1. ^ Freeman, Mike; Robbins, Gary (October 6, 2020). "Surfer magazine, iconic touchstone of Southern California beach culture, shuts down". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 7, 2020.
2. ^ ^{a b} Malibu Surfers Fight Paparazzi (internet video). X17online.com. 2008. Archived from the original on July 14, 2008.
3. ^ Harshaw, p. 708
4. ISBN 0-15-603251-1
   .
5. ^
   ISBN 978-0-7360-7426-1
   .
6. ISBN 978-0-8248-0703-0
   .
7. ISBN 978-0-19-985892-7
   .
8. ISBN 978-0-8248-3547-7
   .
9. ISBN 978-0-8248-0703-0
   .
10. ISBN 978-1-61673-117-5
    .
11. ISBN 978-1-317-39656-7
    .
12. ^
    ISBN 978-1-317-48818-7
    .
13. ^ ^{a b} Isaiah Helekunihi Walker (2008). "Hui Nalu, Beachboys, and the Surfing Boarder-lands of Hawai Nalu, Beachboys, and the Surfing Boarder-lands of Hawaiʻi" (PDF). The Contemporary Pacific. 20 (1). University of Hawaiʻi Press: 89, 96. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
14. ISBN 978-0-8248-3547-7
    .
15. ISBN 0-15-603251-1
    .
16. ISBN 978-0-8223-7282-0
    .
17. ISBN 978-0-19-985892-7
    .
18. ^ Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum (1918). Occasional Papers of Bernice P. Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History. Bishop Museum Press. pp. 20–22.
19. ISBN 978-0-87654-594-2
    .
20. ISBN 978-1-351-54793-2
    .
21. ^ Greene, Linda W. (1993). "5, Changes After the Death of Kamehameha". A Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites on the West Coast of Hawai'i Island. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center.
22. ISBN 978-0-8248-0703-0
    .
23. ISBN 978-0-7385-7488-2
    .
24. ISBN 978-0-8248-3414-2
    .
25. ISBN 978-0-7603-2753-1
    .
26. ISBN 978-0-226-84560-9
    .
27. ISBN 978-0-19-991612-2
    .
28. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7864-1579-3
    .
29. ^ Finney, Ben R.; Houston, James D. (1966). Surfing, the sport of Hawaiian kings. C. E. Tuttle Co. p. 55.
30. ISBN 978-0-8248-2010-7
    .
31. ^ Vega, Priscella (April 28, 2018). "'Surfing padre' Christian Mondor of Huntington Beach dies just before his 93rd birthday". Daily Pilot.
32. ^ Connelly, Laylan (September 6, 2013). "Surfing with spirituality at blessing of the waves". OC Register.
33. ^ ^{a b} Herreria, Carla (December 14, 2014). "Paddle Outs Are Surfing's Most Hallowed (And Beautiful) Ritual". Huffington Post.
34. ISBN 978-1-57306-062-2
    .
35. ISBN 978-0-307-71948-5
    .
36. ^
    doi:10.25904/1912/2170
    .
37. ^
    ISBN 978-1-351-68555-9
    .
38. ^ "Female pro surfers pushing for end to 'sexualised' culture". ABC News. April 15, 2016. Retrieved April 19, 2018.
39. ^ "Textured Waves: A Conversation About Diversity in Surfing". Surfline. February 14, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
40. ISBN 978-0-8070-6003-2
    .
41. ^ "beach bunny". Merriam-Webster.
42. ^
    ISBN 978-0313294907
    .
43. ^ "This Is How You Create Diversity In Surfing". Stab Magazine. July 28, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
44. ^ "Why Surf Culture Desperately Needs More Diversity". SURFER Magazine. June 2, 2018. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
45. ^ "afrosurf-the-book". Mami Wata - UK. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
46. ^ "Exploring African Surf Culture in New Book, 'AfroSurf'". Surfline. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
47. ISBN 9781614239567
    . Retrieved July 25, 2021.
48. ISBN 9781317372523
    . Retrieved July 25, 2021.
49. ^
    ISBN 9780385319331
    . Soul surfing.
50. ^ "I should have been here yesterday". SoulSurfing.co.uk. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
51. ISBN 9780743499224
    .
52. ISBN 0156032511
    .
53. ^ Cassie Comly (October 2015). "Fall in Line: How Surfers' Perceptions of Localism, Territoriality and Waves as Limited Resources Influence Surf-related Aggression". ResearchGate. University of Oregon. Archived from the original on February 8, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
54. ^ Weiss, Kenneth (December 24, 1996). "Territorial Surfer Wipes Out". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 30, 2019.
55. ^ Duane, Daniel (September 28, 2019). "The Long, Strange Tale of California's Surf Nazis". The New York Times.
56. ^ "Lunada Bay Boys Surfers Are Criminal Street Gang, Class Action Says". December 20, 2016. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016.
57. ^ Higgins, Matt (January 22, 2009). "Rough Waves, Tougher Beaches". The New York Times. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
58. ^ Surfermag. "Kai Garcia-The Surfer Interview". Retrieved July 22, 2010.
59. ^ ^{a b c} Borow, Zev (July 10, 2012). "Surf N' Turf". ESPN.
60. ^ ^{a b c} Melekian, Brad (November 2008). "Rough Justice". Outside Online. Archived from the original on September 20, 2010.
61. ISBN 978-1-351-47148-0
    .
62. ^ Marks, Kathy (March 19, 2007). "Sydney's notorious surf gang turns tide of violence into big-screen adulation". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
63. ^ Butler 2017, p. 230
64. ^ "Surfing Gangs". SurfingGangs.TK. Retrieved April 5, 2011.
65. ^ "Bra Boys breaks box office record". ABC News Online. March 26, 2007.
66. ISBN 978-0-7864-9521-4
    .
67. ^
    • Watanabe, June (March 31, 2002). "Wherever it came from, shaka sign part of Hawaii". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
    • "Honoring the Founder of the Shaka Hamana Kalili". This Week Hawaii. June 16, 2017.
    • "The Shaka". Polynesian Cultural Center. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
    • "The history of the famous surfing shaka sign". SurferToday.
    • "Polynesian Cultural Center's New Hukilau Marketplace Brings Back The Spirit of Old Laie". Polynesian Cultural Center. Archived from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
    • Dylan Heyden (June 15, 2016). "Everything You Wanted to Know About the History of the Shaka". The Inertia.
    • Joe Kukura (July 30, 2015). "How Four Small-Town Oahu Natives Went on to Change the World". Polynesian Cultural Center.
    • A Tribute to Hamana Kalili. July 28, 2001. Archived from the original on December 12, 2021 – via YouTube.
    • Shawn Young (November 2008). "Shaka, Brah!". The Surfer's Journal. p. 135. via Shawn Young. "The Origin of the Shaka Sign".
    • "Hamana Kalili, Originator of the Shaka Sign". hamanakalili.info. March 24, 2013.
68. ISBN 9781580081931
    .
69. S2CID 58945073
    .
70. S2CID 143049614
    .
71. ^ Paddock, Richard (September 10, 1991). "Surfers Force Pulp Mills to Halt Ocean Pollution: Suit brings about precedent-setting accord. Firms to spend $56 million in fines, improvements". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
72. ^ Rosenblatt, Susannah (September 23, 2008). "Federal officials struggle to maintain order at toll road hearing". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
73. ^ "Ericeira, Portugal Dedicated as World Surfing Reserve". Save the Waves Coalition. Archived from the original on November 4, 2011. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
74. ^ "Inspire. Activate. Empower". Save the Waves Coalition. Archived from the original on June 1, 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
75. ^ "Global Surfing Market to Reach $13.2 Billion by 2017, According to New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc". Prweb.com. August 25, 2011. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
76. ^ ^{a b} "Managing the Mentawai Surfing Tourism Industry". Mentawai.org. July 11, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
77. ^ ^{a b} Brohman, J. 1996 "New Directions in Tourism for Third World Development", Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 23, No 1: pp 48-70
78. ISBN 9781907621086
    .
79. ^ "National Museum of Australia - Gallery highlights". Australian Journeys. National Museum of Australia. March 29, 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
80. JSTOR 1213771
    .
81. doi:10.25904/1912/2170
    .
82. ^ "Billion Dollar Breakers: The Professional Surfing World". ABC Radio. April 13, 1997. Archived from the original on December 3, 2007. Retrieved December 3, 2007.
83. S2CID 224993317
    – via ScienceDirect.
84. Sydney Morning Herald
    . Nude Night Surfing
85. ^ "Surfilmfestibal 12". Surfilmfestibal.com. June 5, 2014. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
86. ^ "AutoViewer". Surfilmfestibal.com. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
87. ^ "INTERNATIONAL SURF FILM FESTIVAL FRANCE". Archived from the original on June 4, 2011.
88. ^ "Surfing in South Africa". Wavescape. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
89. ^ Liebenson, Donald (March 4, 2021). "The Real-Life Gidget Looks Back From 80: "I Lived It All"". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
90. ^ "Interview with author Kem Nunn". The Soul Of A Clown. June 20, 2020. Archived from the original on February 5, 2024. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
91. ^ Sternbergh, Adam (September 20, 2020). "Surf Noir: A Salt-Streaked Lens On The American Dream". Mr Porter. Archived from the original on July 11, 2021. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
92. ^ "The California Book Awards Winners 1931 - 2012" (PDF). Commonwealth Club. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 19, 2023. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
93. ^ "Tapping the Source". National Book Foundation. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
94. ^ Sievers, Drew (May 4, 2011). "Kem Nunn: Surf Fiction's Dark Lord". The Inertia. Archived from the original on July 15, 2022. Retrieved February 6, 2024.

External links

Look up Appendix:Glossary of surfing terms in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Surfing.

• "Surfing Heritage Foundation". San Clemente, California.
• "International Surfing Museum". Huntington Beach, California.
• "Santa Cruz Surfing Museum". Santa Cruz, California. Archived from the original on December 25, 2003. Retrieved September 19, 2005., with "museum panoramas". City of Santa Cruz. Archived from the original on September 15, 2008.
• "History of surfing and surf culture". Archived from the original on July 16, 2008.
• "History of the term surf nazi".
• "The origins and history of surfing". Archived from the original on March 2, 2012.