Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria
Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria | ||||||||
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Part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars | ||||||||
Sviatoslav's invasion, from the Manasses Chronicle. | ||||||||
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Belligerents | ||||||||
Magyars | Bulgaria | Byzantine Empire | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | ||||||||
Peter I of Bulgaria Boris II of Bulgaria |
John I Tzimiskes Bardas Skleros | |||||||
Strength | ||||||||
60,000+ men | ~30,000 men | ~30–40,000 men |
Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria refers to a conflict beginning in 967/968 and ending in 971, carried out in the eastern
In 927, a peace treaty had been signed between Bulgaria and Byzantium, ending many years of warfare and establishing forty years of peace. Both states prospered during this interlude, but the balance of power gradually shifted in favour of the Byzantines, who made great territorial gains against the Abbasid Caliphate in the East and formed a web of alliances surrounding Bulgaria. By 965/966, the warlike new Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas refused to renew the annual tribute that was part of the peace agreement and declared war on Bulgaria. Preoccupied with his campaigns in the East, Nikephoros resolved to fight the war by proxy and invited the Rus' ruler Sviatoslav to invade Bulgaria.
Sviatoslav's subsequent campaign greatly exceeded the expectations of the Byzantines, who had regarded him only as a means to exert diplomatic pressure on the Bulgarians. The Rus' prince conquered the core regions of the Bulgarian state in the northeastern Balkans in 967–969, seized the Bulgarian tsar
Background
By the beginning of the 10th century, two powers had come to dominate the
The agreement was kept for almost forty years as peaceful relations suited both sides. Bulgaria, despite the barrier formed by the
Byzantium used the peace to focus its energy on wars against the
Upon the sudden death of Emperor
Anxious to avoid war, Tsar Peter sent his two sons,
Sviatoslav enthusiastically agreed to the Byzantine proposal. In August 967 or 968, the Rus' crossed the Danube into Bulgarian territory, defeated a Bulgarian army of 30,000 men in the
Peter retired to a monastery, where he died in 969, while Boris was released from Byzantine custody and recognized as Tsar Boris II. For the moment, it appeared that Nikephoros' plan had worked.[29][30] However, Sviatoslav's brief sojourn into the south awakened in him the desire to conquer these fertile and rich lands. In this intention he was apparently encouraged by the former Byzantine envoy, Kalokyros, who coveted the imperial crown for himself. Thus, after defeating the Pechenegs, he set up viceroys to rule Russia in his absence and turned his sights southward again.[17][30][31][32]
In summer 969, Sviatoslav returned to Bulgaria in force, accompanied by allied Pecheneg and Magyar contingents. In his absence, Pereyaslavets had been recovered by Boris II; the Bulgarian defenders put up a determined fight, but Sviatoslav stormed the city. Thereafter Boris and Roman capitulated, and the Rus' rapidly established control over eastern and northern Bulgaria, placing garrisons in Dorostolon and the Bulgarian capital of
Thus Nikephoros' scheme had backfired: Instead of a weak Bulgaria, a new and warlike nation had been established at the Empire's northern border, and Sviatoslav showed every intention of continuing his advance south into Byzantium. The emperor tried to get the Bulgarians to resume the war against the Rus', but his proposals were not heeded.
In early 970, a Rus' army, with large contingents of Bulgarians, Pechenegs, and Magyars, crossed the
Byzantine offensive
After being occupied with suppressing the revolt of Bardas Phokas throughout the year 970, Tzimiskes marshalled his forces in early 971 for a campaign against the Rus', moving his troops from Asia to Thrace and gathering supplies and siege equipment. The Byzantine navy accompanied the expedition, tasked with carrying troops to effect a landing in the enemy's rear and to cut off their retreat across the Danube.[37][43] The emperor chose Easter week of 971 to make his move, catching the Rus' completely by surprise: The passes of the Balkan mountains had been left unguarded, either because the Rus' were busy suppressing Bulgarian revolts or perhaps (as A.D. Stokes suggests) because a peace agreement that had been concluded after the battle of Arcadiopolis made them complacent.[41][44][45]
The Byzantine army, led by Tzimiskes in person and numbering 30,000–40,000, advanced quickly and reached Preslav unmolested. The Rus' army was defeated in a battle before the city walls, and the Byzantines proceeded to lay siege. The Rus' and Bulgarian garrison under the Rus' noble Sphangel[b] put up a determined resistance, but the city was stormed on 13 April. Among the captives were Boris II and his family, who were brought to Constantinople along with the Bulgarian imperial regalia.[41][44][46][47] The main Rus' force under Sviatoslav withdrew before the imperial army towards Dorostolon on the Danube. As Sviatoslav feared a Bulgarian uprising, he had 300 Bulgarian nobles executed, and imprisoned many others. The imperial army advanced without hindrance; the Bulgarian garrisons of the various forts and strongholds along the way surrendered peacefully.[44][46]
As the Byzantines neared Dorostolon, they came upon the Rus' army, which had deployed on a field before the city, ready for battle. After a long and bitter struggle, the Byzantines won the day when Tzimiskes ordered his heavy cataphract cavalry to advance. The Rus' quickly broke ranks and fled inside the fortress.[48] The subsequent siege of Dorostolon lasted for three months, during which the Byzantines blockaded the city by land and sea and the Rus' attempted several sallies. Three pitched battles were fought, all of which ended in Byzantine victories. After the final and particularly savage battle in late July, the Rus' were forced to capitulate. According to Byzantine chroniclers, by that time only 22,000 out of an army of originally 60,000 remained.[47][49] Tzimiskes and Sviatoslav met and agreed to a peace treaty: The Rus' army was allowed to depart, leaving their captives and plunder behind, and their trading rights were re-affirmed in exchange for an oath to never again attack imperial territory. Sviatoslav would not long outlive the peace settlement, as he was slain on his way home in a Pecheneg ambush at the river Dnieper.[50][51]
Aftermath
The outcome of the war was a complete Byzantine victory, and Tzimiskes decided to take full advantage. Although he initially recognized Boris II as the legitimate Bulgarian tsar, after the fall of Dorostolon his intentions changed. This became evident during his triumphal return to Constantinople, where the emperor entered the
This marked the symbolic end of Bulgaria as an independent state, at least in Byzantine eyes. Byzantine generals were installed in the eastern parts of the country along the Danube. Preslav was renamed Ioannopolis in honour of the emperor, and Dorostolon (or perhaps Pereyaslavets) was renamed Theodoropolis after
In these areas, a Bulgarian resistance emerged, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil wars after the death of Tzimiskes in 976, led by the four sons of a count (comes) Nicholas, who became known as the Cometopuli ("sons of the count"). The most capable amongst them, Samuel, revived the Bulgarian realm, now centered in Macedonia, and was crowned Tsar in 997. A formidable warrior, he led raiding campaigns into Byzantine territory as far south as the Peloponnese, and he engaged the Byzantine emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) in a series of wars resulting in the final conquest of the Bulgarian state by the Byzantines in 1018.[59][60][61] Nevertheless, due to the events of 971, the Byzantines would never regard him as anything other than a rebel against imperial authority, let alone concede the principle of equality enjoyed by the Bulgarian rulers before 971.[59][62]
Notes
^ a: The chronology of the Byzantine embassy to Kiev and Sviatoslav's invasion and conquest of Bulgaria is uncertain, since the sources disagree with each other. Various interpretations have been offered and different dates are used by modern scholars.[63] For these cases, all alternative dates have been provided in this article.
^ b: John Skylitzes names Sphangel or Sphengel as Sviatoslav's second-in-command, with Ikmor as the third most important military leader, while Leo the Deacon reverses this order. Ikmor was killed in battle in front of Dorostolon. Sphangel is usually identified with Sveneld from the Russian Primary Chronicle. The Greek chroniclers record that Sphangel was also killed at Dorostolon, but the Primary Chronicle has Sveneld survive the war and the subsequent Pecheneg ambush which claimed Sviatoslav's life.[64]
References
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 18–23
- ^ Whittow 1996, p. 292
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, pp. 23–24
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 292–294
- ^ Runciman 1930, p. 184
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 317–326
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 479–497
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 293–294
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 47
- ^ Runciman 1930, p. 185
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 30–31
- ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 96–97
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 498–499
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 499–501
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 47–48
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 181
- ^ a b c d Obolensky 1971, p. 128
- ^ Zlatarski 1971, p. 545
- ^ a b c Stephenson 2000, p. 48
- ^ a b Haldon 2001, p. 97
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 260, 294
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 181–182
- ^ Zlatarski 1971, p. 553
- ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 111
- ^ Zlatarski 1971, pp. 554–555
- ^ "It is not my pleasure to be in Kiev, but I will live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube. That shall be the centre of my land; for there all good things flow: gold from the Greeks [Byzantines], precious cloths, wines and fruits of many kinds; silver and horses from the Czechs and Magyars; and from the Rus' furs, wax, honey and slaves." – Sviatoslav, according to the Primary Chronicle, Stephenson 2000, p. 49
- ^ Whittow 1996, p. 260
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 260, 294–295
- ^ a b Fine 1991, pp. 182–183
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 49
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 260–261
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 183–184
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 49–51
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 184–185
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 185–186
- ^ a b c Stephenson 2000, p. 51
- ^ a b Obolensky 1971, p. 129
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 261, 295
- ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 97–98
- ^ a b Whittow 1996, p. 295
- ^ a b c Fine 1991, p. 186
- ^ Haldon 2001, p. 98
- ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 98–99
- ^ a b c Haldon 2001, p. 99
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 51–52
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 52
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 509
- ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 99–100
- ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 100–104
- ^ Haldon 2001, p. 104
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 53
- ^ a b Whittow 1996, p. 296
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 54
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 509–510
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 52–53
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 187–188
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 188
- ^ Obolensky 1971, pp. 130–131
- ^ a b Whittow 1996, p. 297
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 58–75
- ^ Obolensky 1971, pp. 131–133
- ^ Obolensky 1971, p. 131
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 182
- ^ Talbot & Sullivan 2005, pp. 181, 189, 193
Sources
- Andreev, Jordan; Lalkov, Milcho (1996), The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars (in Bulgarian), Veliko Tarnovo: Abagar, ISBN 954-427-216-X
- ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0.
- ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
- Haldon, John F. (2001), The Byzantine Wars, Stroud: Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-1795-0
- Hanak, Walter K. (1995), "The Infamous Svjatoslav: Master of Duplicity in War and Peace?", in Miller, Timothy S.; Nesbitt, John (eds.), Peace and War in Byzantium: Essays in Honor of George T. Dennis, S.J., Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, ISBN 978-0-8132-0805-3
- Jakobsson, Sverrir, The Varangians: In God’s Holy Fire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), pp. 58-61. ISBN 978-3-030-53797-5
- ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
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- Stephenson, Paul (2000), Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-77017-3
- Stokes, A.D. (1962), "The Background and Chronology of the Balkan Campaigns of Sviatoslav Igorevich", The Slavonic and East European Review, 40: 44–57
- Talbot, Alice-Mary; Sullivan, Dennis F., eds. (2005), The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, ISBN 978-0-88402-324-1
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Further reading
- Stoyanov, Aleksandr (July 2019). "The Size of Bulgaria's Medieval Field Armies: A Case Study of Military Mobilization Capacity in the Middle Ages". Journal of Military History. 83 (3): 719–746.