Romania in Antiquity

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Syginnae
)
Part of a series on the
History of Romania
Coat of arms of Romania
Prehistory
Antiquity
Middle Ages (Early)
Early Modern Times
National Awakening
Kingdom of Romania
Socialist Republic of Romania
Post-Revolution
  • Romania since 1989
By topic
By historical region
flag Romania portal

The Antiquity in Romania spans the period between the foundation of

Crişana
.

Archaeological research prove that

Northern Carpathians, the Dniester and the Balkan Mountains into a powerful, but ephemeral empire. It disintegrated into at least four parts after his death. Large territories to the north of the Lower Danube—the lands between the Tisa, the Northern Carpathians, the Dniester and the Lower Danube—were again unified for less than two decades by King Decebalus
of the Dacians (87–106 AD).

Modern Dobruja—the territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea—was the first historical region of Romania to have been incorporated in the Roman Empire. The region was attached to the Roman province of Moesia between 46 and 79 AD. The Romans also occupied Banat, Oltenia and Transylvania after the fall of Decebalus and the disintegration of his kingdom in 106. The three regions together formed the new province of Dacia. The new province was surrounded by "barbarian" tribes, including the Costoboci, the Iazyges and the Roxolani. New Germanic tribes—the Buri and the Vandals—arrived and settled in the vicinity of Dacia province in the course of the Marcomannic Wars in the second half of the 2nd century.

Background

Main article:
Prehistoric Romania
The thinking "Hamangia" figurines
The thinking figurines of the Hamangia culture—the "Thinkers" (National History and Archaeology Museum, Constanța)

Balkan Peninsula.[2][3] They lived in pit-houses and used chiseled stone tools.[2] They decorated their fine pottery with geographical figures and produced clay figurines.[2]

Cucuteni-Trypillian" figurine

The antrophomorphic figurines of the "

Cucuteni-Trypillian culture" of Muntenia, northeastern Moldavia and southern Transylvania.[5] "Cucuteni-Trypillian" settlements, which often covered an area reaching 6 hectares (15 acres), flourished until around 2000 BC.[5] Production of copper tools and artifacts—pins, hooks, and pendants—and the use of gold can also be demonstrated from the last centuries of the Stone Age.[6]

Practically nothing is known of the languages spoken by the locals in this period.[7] Historians—for instance, Vlad Georgescu and Mihai Rotea—say that the spread of Indo-European languages began in the period between 2500 and 2000 BC.[5][8][6] Fortified settlements and the great number of weapons—arrowheads, spears and knife blades—unearthed in them show that the stability featuring the Stone Age cultures of "Old Europe" came to an end in the same period.[8]

"Coțofeni" pottery
"Coțofeni" vessels

Coexistence of a great number of transitory cultures, including the "

Șpălnaca in Transylvania.[10] Finds of amber delivered from the coast of the Baltic Sea and weapons produced in Mycenaean Greece show the importance of trading with these distant regions of Europe.[10][11] From around 1100 BC, a homogenization of pottery decorations and the development of new archaeological cultures can be detected.[12] These new cultures spread over large territories; for instance, the "Basarabi culture" flourished in the wider region of the Lower Danube.[12] The sporadic use of iron also began around 1100 BC, but it only became widespread about 350 years later.[12]

Before the Romans

Greek colonies

Callatis was founded by Dorian colonists from Heraclea Pontica in the second half of the 6th century BC.[20]

Ruins of the walls of Histria
Ruins of the walls of Histria

Inscriptions from Histria and Callatis prove that the townsfolk preserved their ancestral traditions for more than half a millennium.[21][22] They maintained the ancient denominations for their tribes, magistrates, and public bodies, and remained faithful to cults taken from the motherland.[16] The three colonies developed into important centers of trade in olive oil, wine, fine pottery and jewelry.[14][23] A level of houses and temples destroyed proves that an unidentified enemy—according to the scholar Paul MacKendrick, Scythians—took and sacked Histria in the late 6th century BC.[24]

Initially, the constitution of Histria was an oligarchy, but, as Aristotle recorded, "it ended in the rule of the populace".[25][26] MacKendrick writes that this change from the rule of aristocratic families to democracy occurred around 450 BC.[27] Thereafter an assembly and council administered Histria; their members were elected by the free male citizens of the town.[27] Callatis also became a democracy in the second half of the 5th century BC.[28] According to MacKendrick, the fragment "KA…" in an inscription listing the Greek towns paying tribute to Athens refers to Callatis, proving that the town became a member of the Delian League.[29]

Callatis

For defensive purposes, both Histria and Callatis were surrounded by walls: the former in the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, the latter in the 4th century BC.[30] King Lysimachus of Thrace forced Histria to accept his suzerainty in the 310s BC, and Celts sacked the town in 279 BC.[31] Histria and Callatis attempted to take the port of Tomis, but they were defeated around 262 BC.[20]

Getae

Main article: Getae
Tumulus from the 4th century BC
Remains of a tumulus from the 4th century BC (Cucuteni)

The natives of the Lower Danube region came to the attention of classical authors after the establishment of Greek colonies along the Black Sea shore.

Persians defeated and enslaved them.[33][36] He also described the Getae's belief in the immortality of the soul and their practice of human sacrifices in order to send messages to their principal god, Zalmoxis.[37]

Agighiol
Coţofeneşti

The "Ferigile-Bârseşti" group of cremation

Agighiol, and the gold helmet found at Coțofănești evidence the wealth accumulated by native chieftains through their connections with the Greek colonies in the 4th century BC.[41]

The "Getae beyond

Sitalkes of the Odyssians against Athens in 429 BC.[33][43] In 335 BC, according to Arrian, Alexander the Great launched a one-day raid across the Lower Danube against the Getae who could not prevent him from crossing the river.[44] In connection with the raid, Arrian refers to "a deep cornfield" of the Getae and makes mention of their "poorly fortified"[45] city.[46]

After Alexander the Great's death, Lysimachus of Thrace ruled the northern regions of the

Zalmodegicus and Rhemaxos, in exchange for their protection against raids by other neighboring "barbarians".[48][21][49]

Syginnae

The Syginnae, who had "small, short-faced, long-haired horses",

Crişana, which suggests that the Syginnae were immigrants who forced the local population to accept their rule.[51]

Agathyrsi

Main article: Agathyrsi

Herodotus writes that the

Pontic steppes.[36][38] However, the identification of the Agathyrsi as a Scythian tribe is controversial, because the making of their artifacts, especially their swords, found in Transylvania differs from the technique applied in the Pontic steppes.[38] The Agathyrsi's "way of life" was actually "similar to that of the Thracians",[55] as it was emphasized by Herodotus himself.[36]

Quivers decorated with metal crosses, mirrors and other featuring artifacts of the "Agathyrsian territory" appeared in the easternmost regions of the plains along the River Tisa around 500 BC, suggesting that the Agathyrsi expanded their rule over these territories in the subsequent century.[56] Although Aristotle in his Problems still referred to the Agathyrsi, stating that they "sang their laws, so as not to forget them",[57] thereafter no written source makes mention of them.[56] Their cemeteries ceased to be used around 350 BC.[56] Whether the Agathyrsi were assimilated by other tribes, or abandoned their lands, cannot be decided.[56][36]

Celts

Main article:
Celts in Transylvania
helmet of Ciumeşti
from the early 3rd century BC

In the period between 450 and 200 BC, the vast territory between the

Eastern Carpathians experienced the spread of the "La Tène culture".[58] It is without doubt that this culture emerged in a Celtic-speaking population, but it cannot be decided whether its spread was only the consequence of migrations or acculturation also contributed to it.[58] In Transylvania, the arrival of the Celts is exclusively evidenced by archaeological finds, because no documents refer to this event.[59] Isolated graves yielding "La Tène" metalwork—helmets, weapons and horse harness—prove that the first Celtic groups settled in Crişana and Transylvania after around 335 BC.[59][60]

"La Tène" settlements were consisted of semi-sunken huts, each with a nearby storage pit.[61] Large "La Tène" cemeteries were unearthed, for instance, at

a helmet decorated with a raven from the early 3rd century BC was found.[61][63] "La Tène" cemeteries disappeared from Transylvania around 175 BC.[61]

Bastarnae

Main article: Bastarnae

The Bastarnae settled in the region between the rivers

Philip V of Macedonia in his wars in the Balkan Peninsula.[61] Strabo, Pliny the Elder and Tacitus list them among the Germanic peoples,[65] but the latter also writes that they intermarried with the nomad Sarmatians.[66]

Rustoiu identifies the Bastarnae as the bearers of the "Poieneşti–Lukašovka culture" of the regions to the east of the Carpathian Mountains,[65] but this identification is not universally accepted.[66] For instance, "Poieneşti–Lukašovka" settlements were inhabited by a sedentary population,[65] but the historian Malcolm Todd says that the mobility of the Bastarnic warriors suggests that they were mustered by a nomad or semi-nomad people.[66] Besides ceramics featuring the culture, "Poieneşti–Lukašovka" sites yielded pottery with analogies in Dacian and Celtic sites.[65]

Towards Roman occupation

Greek colonies

Mithridates VI (c. 120–63 BC): (1) the kingdom before his reign (dark purple) (2) after his conquests (purple) (3) his conquests in the First Mithridatic War
(89–85 BC) (pink)

Callatis, Histria and Tomis accepted the suzerainty of King

Mithridates VI of Pontus around 110 BC.[67] His expansionist policy clashed with the interests of the Romans[68] who had by that time started to advance in Southeastern Europe.[69] The governor of the Roman province of Macedonia, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus forced Callatis to sign a treaty of alliance with the Roman Empire in 72 or 71 BC.[68] According to MacKendrick, it is plausible that Histria and Tomis concluded a similar treaty with the Romans around the same time, because the empire needed their ports for naval bases in the Black Sea.[68]

The three towns made an anti-Roman alliance with the Bastarnae, the Getae and other "barbarian" tribes in 61 BC.[68] They inflicted a decisive defeat on the Roman armies which were under the command of Gaius Antonius Hybrida, Proconsul of Macedonia.[70] King Burebista of the Dacians subjugated the three Greek colonies in about 50 BC.[71][72] An inscription from the same time refers to the "second founding" of Histria, implying that it had been nearly destroyed during the previous wars.[73]

Callatis, Histria and Tomis regained their freedom after the death of Burebista in 44 BC.[73] However, their independence became nominal and they accepted Roman protectorate after the expedition of 27 BC by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the lands between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea.[73] The Roman poet, Ovid spent his last years in exile in Tomis between 9 and 17 AD.[73] His poems evidence that barbarian attack was a constant menace for the townsfolk in this period.[74]

Would you care to learn the nature of the local inhabitants,
find out amid what customs I survive?
They're a mixed stock, Greek and native, but the natives –
still barely civilized – prevail.
Great hordes of tribal nomads – Sarmatians, Getae –
come riding in and out here, hog the crown
of the road, every one of them carrying bow and quiver
and poisoned arrows, yellow with viper's gall:
harsh voices, fierce faces, warriors incarnate,
hair and beards shaggy, untrimmed,
hands not slow to draw – and drive home – the sheath knife
that each barbarian wears strapped at his side.

— Ovid: Tristia[75]

Dacians

Main articles: Dacia and Dacians

The earliest records of the Dacians are connected to their conflicts with the Roman Empire in the 2nd century BC.[76][77] Strabo writes, in his Geographica, that their language "is the same as that of the Getae".[78][76] He adds that the distinction between the Getae and the Dacians is based on their location: the Getae are "those who incline towards the Pontus and the east," and the Dacians are "those who incline in the opposite direction towards Germany and the sources of the Ister".[78][79]

A sica from Transylvania
An iron sica or dagger and its scabbard from the 1st century BC unearthed at Cugir

Archaeological finds—cremation graves yielding horse bits, curved daggers or sica, swords and other weapons—evidence the development of a military elite in the territories to the north of the Lower Danube in the 3rd-1st centuries BC.[80] Tumuli with similar grave goods appeared in the same region and expanded towards southwest Transylvania and southern Moldavia from around 100 BC.[81] The military character of the new elite is proven by the frequent raids against the neighboring territories, primarily in Thrace and Macedonia, from the 110s BC, which provoked counter-attacks by the Romans.[82][77] For instance, Frontinus writes of Marcus Minucius Rufus's victory over "the Scordiscans and Dacians"[83] in 109 BC, and Florus says that Gaius Scribonius Curio, Proconsul of Macedonia "reached Dacia, but shrank from its gloomy forests"[84] in 74 BC.[82][77]

Map of Dacia in the last years of Burebista's reign
The kingdom of Burebista in the last years of his reign

The native tribes of the wider region of the Lower Danube were for the first time united under King

Orăştie Mountains where Burebista had a number of fortifications erected.[88] This forts were built by Greek craftsmen who introduced the use of chiseled stone.[89]

Strabo writes that Burebista "had as his coadjutor

comati.[93]

Strabo writes that Burebista "was deposed"[90] during an uprising.[93] The year of Burebista's fall cannot exactly be determined,[93] but most historians write that he was assassinated in 44 BC.[88][85][95][86] Strabo narrates that after Burebista's death his empire fall apart and four (later five) smaller polities developed in its ruins.[93] The names of some of their kings were recorded by Roman writers.[96] For instance, Dicomes, "the king of the Getae, promised to come and join" Mark Antony "with a great army",[97] according to Plutarch.[98]

Ruins of Sarmizegetusa Regia, Decebal's capital
Ruins of Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of Decebalus

A new empire dominated by the Dacians emerged in the reign of

client king, but the Romans also gave "large sums of money" to him "as well as artisans of every trade pertaining to both peace and war",[102] according to Cassius Dio.[100][103] Taking advantage of his treaty with the Romans, Decebalus improved the defenses of his kingdom.[100] He also expanded his rule over the neighboring territories in the next decade.[101] After these conquests, Decebalus's multiethnic empire was bordered by the Tisa, the Northern Carpathians, the Dniester and the Lower Danube, according to Gábor Vékony.[100]

Dacian kingdom under Burebista
One of the greatest existence of Dacia


Bastarnae

Main article: Bastarnae

Cassius Dio narrates that the Bastarnae "crossed the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them"[104] in 29 or 28 BC.[65] Marcus Licinius Crassus in short routed them.[65] In the first decades of the next century, the Sarmatians who arrived from the Pontic steppes became the dominant power of the regions up to that time inhabited by the Bastarnae.[105]

Roman provinces and the neighboring tribes

Lower Moesia

The year when the lands between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea, including the three Greek colonies of Callatis, Histria and Tomis, were annexed by the Roman Empire is uncertain. According to the historians Kurt W. Treptow and Marcel Popa, this happened in 46 AD.

Lower Moesia.[107] The new province was administered by former consuls who commanded two Roman legions, the Legio V Macedonica and the Legio I Italica.[107]

The region flourished under

Marcomannic War, Emperor Marcus Aurelius had 12,000 free Dacians settled in the province.[108]

Dacia Trajana

Main article: Roman Dacia
Second Dacian War (a relief on Trajan's Column in Rome
)

The peaceful relationship between the Roman Empire and Decebalus's realm came to an end after Emperor

Second Dacian War, the Romans annihilated the Dacian kingdom.[111] Its core territories—Banat, Oltenia and Transylvania—were transformed into a new Roman province named Dacia in 106.[112] The Romans also occupied Muntenia and the southern parts of Moldavia, which were annexed to the province of Moesia, but they withdrew from these territories in 119.[113]

Map of Roman Dacia
Roman provinces in the regions now forming Romania in the 2nd century AD

Under Emperor Trajan a procurator—a former consul—ruled the province.

Dacia Porolissensis—were under the command of a former consul, the Propraetor of the Three Dacias.[118]

Eutropius writes that Emperor Trajan transferred "vast numbers of people from all over the Roman world to inhabit the countryside and the cities", because "Dacia had, in fact, been depopulated"

Boarta, Cernat, and other places in southern Transylvania prove the survival of rural communities.[122]

The exploitation of natural resources—primarily mining of copper, gold, iron, lead, salt, and silver—had a preeminent role in the economy of Dacia province.[123][124] Archaeological research also revealed the existence of workshops producing pottery, weapons, glass for the local market.[125][126] Roads built for military purposes also contributed to the development of long-distance trade.[126]

Dacia became subject of frequent plundering raids by the Carpi and other neighboring tribes from the 230s.

Aurelius (270-275) who "led away both soldiers and provincials, giving up hope that it could be retained",[130] according to the Historia Augusta.[131][132]

Sarmatians

Main articles: Sarmatians, Iazyges, and Roxolani

Costoboci

Main article: Costoboci
Lipiţa" pottery (Archaeological Museum of Kraków
)

The Costoboci were a

Lipiţa culture",[137] but this identification has not been universally accepted by scholars.[138] A Roman inscription recorded the name of a rex Coisstobocensis ("king of the Costoboci") Pieporus, suggesting that he was an ally of the empire.[138]

During the Marcomannic War, the Costoboci plundered the Roman provinces in the Eastern Balkans as far as

Eleusis in 170.[139][140] The governor or Dacia, Sextus Cornelius Clemens persuaded the Germanic Hasdingi to invade and occupy their land around 171.[134][136] This was the last record of the Costoboci who disappeared from the sources.[134][136] Gheorghe Bichir writes that many of them settled among the Carpi.[137]

Germanic tribes

Main articles: Buri tribe, Goths, and Taifals
Map of the barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire
"Barbarian" invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century

The Marcomannic Wars, which lasted from 162 to 180, caused a series of population shifts along the eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire.

Boineşti, Medieșu Aurit and other sites to the northwest of Dacia province in the last decades of the 2nd century.[143] Their spread point at the arrival of the Hasdingi, who settled in these regions after their conquest of "the land of the Costoboci".[143] "Przeworsk" pottery, weapons and other artifacts were also found at Roman forts in Dacia, suggesting a close contact between the German tribesmen and the Romans.[143]

A new enemy of the Roman Empire, the

Astringi, and also three thousands of the Carpi"[147] joined the Goths during their invasion of Dacia and Moesia in 250, suggesting that the Goths had by that time become the predominant power among the tribes dwelling in the vicinity of the Roman Empire's Lower Danube frontier.[148]

Carpi

Main article: Carpi (people)

The natives dwelling to the east of the Carpathians were collectively known as Carpi from the 3rd century.

Petrus Patricius recorded that they stated that they were "stronger than the Goths" when the Romans agreed to pay an annual tribute to the latter.[151]

Afterwards

Main articles: Origin of the Romanians and Romania in the Early Middle Ages

References

  1. ^ Rotea 2005, pp. 12–13.
  2. ^ a b c Rotea 2005, p. 12.
  3. ^ Georgescu 1991, pp. 1–2.
  4. ^ Rotea 2005, pp. 15–16.
  5. ^ a b c Georgescu 1991, p. 2.
  6. ^ a b Rotea 2005, p. 19.
  7. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 6.
  8. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 7.
  9. ^ Rotea 2005, p. 20.
  10. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 8.
  11. ^ Taylor 1994, p. 377.
  12. ^ a b c Taylor 1994, p. 378.
  13. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 21.
  14. ^ a b c d Georgescu 1991, p. 3.
  15. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 105.
  16. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 23.
  17. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 34.
  18. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 199.
  19. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 36.
  20. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 38.
  21. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 12.
  22. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 23, 38.
  23. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 42.
  24. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 25, 30.
  25. ^ Aristotle: The Politics (1305.a.37), p. 219.
  26. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 32.
  27. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, pp. 23, 32.
  28. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 39.
  29. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 32, 39.
  30. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 33, 216.
  31. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 33–34, 216.
  32. ^ a b c d Oltean 2007, p. 41.
  33. ^ a b c d Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 13.
  34. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 215.
  35. ^ Herodotus: The Histories (4.93), p. 266.
  36. ^ a b c d e f g Rustoiu 2005, p. 35.
  37. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 20.
  38. ^ a b c d Taylor 1994, p. 383.
  39. ^ Taylor 1994, pp. 399–400.
  40. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 48.
  41. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 27–29.
  42. ^ The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides (2.8), p. 100.
  43. ^ a b Rustoiu 2005, p. 37.
  44. ^ a b c d Rustoiu 2005, p. 38.
  45. ^ The Anabasis by Arrian (1.4), p. 7.
  46. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 15.
  47. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 17.
  48. ^ a b Rustoiu 2005, p. 39.
  49. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 17.
  50. ^ Herodotus: The Histories (5.9), p. 306.
  51. ^ a b c Rustoiu 2005, p. 36.
  52. ^ Harding 1994, p. 334.
  53. ^ Herodotus: The Histories (4.48), p. 251.
  54. ^ Vékony 1994, pp. 14–15.
  55. ^ Herodotus: The Histories (4.104), p. 270.
  56. ^ a b c d Vékony 1994, p. 15.
  57. ^ Aristotle: Problems (19.28), p. 555.
  58. ^ a b Cunliffe 1994, p. 367.
  59. ^ a b Rustoiu 2005, p. 42.
  60. ^ a b Vékony 1994, p. 16.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h Rustoiu 2005, p. 43.
  62. ^ Rustoiu 2005, pp. 42–43.
  63. ^ Cunliffe 1994, p. 362.
  64. ^ Livy: Rome and the Mediterranean (40.57.2), p. 481.
  65. ^ a b c d e f Rustoiu 2005, p. 44.
  66. ^ a b c Todd 2003, p. 23.
  67. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 145, 216.
  68. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 1975, p. 145.
  69. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 21.
  70. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 145–145.
  71. ^ MacKendrick 1975, pp. 145–146.
  72. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, pp. 105, 199.
  73. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 1975, p. 146.
  74. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 147.
  75. ^ Ovid: Tristia (5.7.9-20), p. 45.
  76. ^ a b Oltean 2007, p. 42.
  77. ^ a b c Rustoiu 2005, p. 46.
  78. ^ a b Strabo (31 December 2012). "Mysia, Dacia, and the Danube". The Geography (Translated by Horace Leonard Jones) (7.3.13). http://penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 11 February 2014. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  79. ^ Rustoiu 2005, p. 31.
  80. ^ Rustoiu 2005, p. 45.
  81. ^ Rustoiu 2005, pp. 45–46.
  82. ^ a b Oltean 2007, pp. 42–43.
  83. ^ Frontinus (20 October 2013). "On creating panic in the enemy's ranks". Stratagems (Translated by Charles E. Bennett) (2.4.3). http://penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 11 February 2014. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  84. ^ Florus (29 October 2003). "The War with the Allobroges". Epitome of Roman History (Translated by E. S. Forster) (1.39.6). http://penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 11 February 2014. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  85. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 22.
  86. ^ a b Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 55.
  87. ^ a b Rustoiu 2005, p. 47.
  88. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 1975, p. 216.
  89. ^ Rustoiu 2005, p. 55.
  90. ^ a b c Strabo (31 December 2012). "Mysia, Dacia, and the Danube". The Geography (Translated by Horace Leonard Jones) (7.3.11). http://penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 11 February 2014. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  91. ^ Taylor 1994, p. 404.
  92. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 47.
  93. ^ a b c d e f g Rustoiu 2005, p. 49.
  94. ^ The Gothic History of Jordanes (11:71), p. 71.
  95. ^ Taylor 1994, p. 407.
  96. ^ Oltean 2007, pp. 48–49.
  97. ^ Plutarch (10 November 2012). "Antony". Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans (Translated by John Dryden). ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. Archived from the original on August 10, 2008. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  98. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 49.
  99. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 84.
  100. ^ a b c d e Vékony 1994, p. 27.
  101. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 23.
  102. ^ Cassius Dio (16 April 2011). "The reign and character of Domitian, notoriously paranoid and cruel". Roman History (Translated by Earnest Cary) (67.7.4). penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  103. ^ Opreanu 2005, pp. 60–61.
  104. ^ Cassius Dio (16 April 2011). "Antony and Cleopatra. Suicide of Antony. Octavian conquers Egypt. Octavian celebrates triumphs in Rome. Marcus Crassus conquers Moesia". Roman History (Translated by Earnest Cary) (51.23.2). penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
  105. ^ a b Heather 2010, p. 114.
  106. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, p. xiv.
  107. ^ a b c Opreanu 2005, p. 110.
  108. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 217.
  109. ^ Opreanu 2005, p. 61.
  110. ^ a b MacKendrick 1975, p. 218.
  111. ^ a b Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 25.
  112. ^ Georgescu 1991, pp. 5–6.
  113. ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 6.
  114. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 57.
  115. ^ Opreanu 2005, p. 67.
  116. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 56.
  117. ^ a b Oltean 2007, p. 55.
  118. ^ a b c d Opreanu 2005, p. 70.
  119. ^ Eutropius: Breviarium (8.6.2.), p. 50.
  120. ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 299.
  121. ^ Vékony 1994, p. 44.
  122. ^ Opreanu 2005, pp. 74, 76.
  123. ^ Vékony 1994, pp. 36–37.
  124. ^ Opreanu 2005, pp. 83–84.
  125. ^ Vékony 1994, p. 37.
  126. ^ a b Opreanu 2005, pp. 84–85.
  127. ^ Vékony 1994, p. 52.
  128. ^ Eutropius: Breviarium (9.8.2.), p. 57.
  129. ^ a b Opreanu 2005, p. 102.
  130. ^ "The Life of Aurelian". Historia Augusta (Translated by David Magie) (39.7.). http://penelope.uchicago.edu. 11 June 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  131. ^ Bolovan et al. 1997, p. 42.
  132. ^ Opreanu 2005, p. 104.
  133. ^ Heather 2010, p. 131.
  134. ^ a b c Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 78.
  135. ^ Cassius Dio (16 April 2011). "Wars against the Marcomans and the Iazyges. The revolt of Cassius in Syria ends in Cassius' death. Character of Marcus Aurelius". Roman History (Translated by Earnest Cary) (72.12.1). penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  136. ^ a b c Rustoiu 2005, p. 99.
  137. ^ a b Bichir 1976, p. 161.
  138. ^ a b Rustoiu 2005, p. 98.
  139. ^ Heather 2010, p. 97.
  140. ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 153.
  141. ^ Todd 2003, p. 55.
  142. ^ a b Opreanu 2005, p. 98.
  143. ^ a b c Opreanu 2005, p. 99.
  144. ^ a b Heather 2010, p. 109.
  145. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 42.
  146. ^ Heather 2010, p. 127.
  147. ^ The Gothic History of Jordanes (16:91), p. 77.
  148. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 45.
  149. ^ Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 65.
  150. ^ Bichir 1976, pp. 166–167.
  151. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 44, 396.

Sources

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romania_in_Antiquity&oldid=1213241812#Before_the_Romans"