Syria

Syrian Arab Republic ٱلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة ( Arabic ) al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriya
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: وَحْدَةٌ ، حُرِّيَّةٌ ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya "Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ Ḥumāt ad-Diyār " Ethnic groups (2023)[2]		74–75% Arabs 9.5–10% Kurds 15–16.5% Others (including Turkomans, Assyrians, Circassians, Armenians and others)[2][3]
Religion (2023)[2]	87% Islam 74% Sunni 10% Alawite 3% Shia 10% Christianity <3% Druze
Syrian
Government	Unitary presidential republic[4] under a totalitarian[5] hereditary dictatorship
• President	Bashar al-Assad
• Vice President	Najah al-Attar
• Prime Minister	Hussein Arnous
• Speaker of the People's Assembly	Hammouda Sabbagh
Legislature	independence	17 April 1946
• Left the United Arab Republic	28 September 1961
• Ba'ath Party takes power	8 March 1963
• Current constitution	27 February 2012
سوريا.

Syria,

After the death of Hafiz al-Assad in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad inherited the presidency and political system centered around a cult of personality to the al-Assad family. The Ba'ath regime is a totalitarian dictatorship that has been internationally condemned for its political repression alongside its numerous human rights abuses, including summary executions, massive censorship, forced disappearances, mass-murders, barrel-bombings, chemical attacks and other war-crimes. Following its violent suppression of the Arab Spring protests of the 2011 Syrian Revolution, the Syrian government was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011 for over 11 years, until its reinstatement in 2023. Since July 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a multi-sided civil war, with involvement of different countries. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the massacres and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.^[c] As of 2020, three political entities – the Syrian Interim Government, Syrian Salvation Government, and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria – have emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule.

Syria is a member of the

Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC

Ancient antiquity

Since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of the centers of

One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier

Ebla was weakened by a long war with Mari, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire after Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin's conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.^[48][49]

By the 21st century BC,

Tuthmosis III, as depicted in the tomb of Rekhmire, circa 1450 BCE (actual painting and interpretational drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of Retjenu".^[58][59]

Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic Suteans who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the West Semitic speaking Arameans who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the Battle of Kadesh.^[60][61] The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction c. 1200 BC,^[62] while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,^[63] who also annexed much of the west during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I 1114–1076 BC.

With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as

Sam'al

.

A

Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal), and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city state of Carthage (in modern Tunisia) in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the Roman Republic

.

Syria and the Western half of

Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. During the fall of Assyria, the Scythians ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at Carchemish

in northern Syria in 605 BC.

The Assyrian Empire was followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire (605 BC – 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt.

Classical antiquity

Main articles: Eber-Nari, Coele-Syria, Roman Syria, and Syria Palaestina

Lands that constitute modern day Syria were part of the

satrapy of Aram/Syria Eber-Nari

.

Syria was later conquered by the

Macedonian Empire which was ruled by Alexander the Great c. 330 BC, and consequently became Coele-Syria province of the Greek Seleucid Empire

(323 BC – 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves 'King of Syria' and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240.

Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion.

Hasmoneans

upon the slow disintegration of the Hellenistic Empire.

Syria briefly came under

Roman province

in 64 BC, thus ending Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the silk road, which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians.

Palmyra, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. Eventually, in the late 3rd century AD, the Palmyrene king Odaenathus defeated the Persian emperor Shapur I and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow Zenobia established the Palmyrene Empire, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273 AD.

The northern Mesopotamian

Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene controlled areas of north east Syria between 10 AD and 117 AD, before it was conquered by Rome.^[65]

The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Ancient Britain,[66] with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort Arbeia.^[67]

Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the Byzantines, with the split in the Roman Empire.^[44]

The largely

Mesopotamian Religion. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).^[68]

Syrians held considerable amounts of power during the

Alexander Severus. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in Roman Arabia. He was emperor from 244 to 249,^[68] and ruled briefly during the Crisis of the Third Century. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day Shahba

) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death.

Syria is significant in the

inappropriate external link?

])

Middle Ages

Dumat Al-Jandal was 800 kilometres (500 mi) from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina being interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it".^[71] William Muir also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had now learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.^[69]

Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî

, built in the early 7th century

By AD 640, Syria

Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla.^[73]

Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. The Mongols under Ghazan

defeated the Mamluks.

Sections of Syria were held by French, English,

Hulegu

in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute.

A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the

Aramean and Assyrian Christian populations, greatly reducing their numbers.^[78] By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route

through Syria.

Ottoman Syria

Main article: Ottoman Syria

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Quran, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.^[79]

Al Sham

" in yellow

Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each

Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon

was created, as well, and soon after the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was given a separate status.

During

Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920^[82]

and has not changed to date.

French Mandate

Main articles:

Mandatory Syrian Republic

In 1920, a short-lived independent

Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.^[83][84]

In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty.

Ghouta during the Great Syrian Revolt

against French colonial rule in the 1920s

Syria and France negotiated a

Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.^[85]

Independent Syrian Republic

Main articles:

Syrian Republic (1946–63), United Arab Republic, and 1963 Syrian coup d'état

Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded

Arab World^[89] since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.^[89]

Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a

Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.^[89]

In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis,^[91] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.^[89] Turkey then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.^[92]

On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.^[85] Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafiz al-Assad. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September 1961, after a coup.

Ba'athist Syria

The ensuing instability following the

state ideology.^[94]

On 23 February 1966, the

Syrian-led ba'ath movement

was established.

In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.^[97] When the Six-Day War broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours.^[98] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.^[99]

Ba'athist Syria under Assad

Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the

Black September (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970)" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.^[100]

The power struggle culminated in the November

Assad dynasty was destined to rule perennially.^[102]

On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the

Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,^[104] when some 10,000 – 40,000 people were killed by regular Syrian Army troops.^[105][106]

in Lebanon

Hafiz al-Assad

on 31 May 1976.

In a major shift in relations with both other

Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the US-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. Syria participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.^[107]

Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son,

an election in which he ran unopposed.^[85] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.^[108] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.^{[101][109][110]}

On 5 October 2003, Israel

Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.^[115]

Current political situation 2011 to present

Syrian Civil War

Main article:

Syrian Civil War

The ongoing

foreign countries, leading to claims of a proxy war in Syria.^[118]

According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 100,000 people had been killed by June 2013,[119]^[120][121] including 11,000 children.^[122] To escape the violence, 4.9 million^[123] Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring countries of Jordan,^[124] Iraq,^[125] Lebanon, and Turkey.^[126][127] An estimated 450,000 Syrian Christians have fled their homes.^{[128][needs update]} By October 2017, an estimated 400,000 people had been killed in the war according to the UN.^[129]

In September 2022, a new UN report stated that the Syrian Civil War was in danger of flaring up again. The UN also said it had been totally unable to deliver any supplies during the first half of 2022.^[130]

Current conflicts

the Islamic State (IS)

(For a more detailed, interactive map, see Template:Syrian Civil War detailed map

In 2022, the leader of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), Mazloum Abdi, said that Kurdish forces were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying “Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.[140]^{[141][142][143][144]} In July 2022, the SDF and the official Syrian military forged active plans to coordinate actively together to create defense plans to guard against invasion by Turkey.^[145] The SDF said that they felt that the main threat to Kurdish groups was an invasion by Turkey.^[146]

As of 2023, active fighting in the conflict between the Syrian government and rebel groups had mostly subsided, but there were occasional flareups in Northwestern Syria.^[147][148] In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of ISIS in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.^{[149][150][151]}

Major economic crisis

On 10 June 2020, hundreds of protesters returned to the streets of Sweida for the fourth consecutive day, rallying against the collapse of the country's economy, as the Syrian pound plummeted to 3,000 to the dollar within the previous week.^[152]

On 11 June, Prime Minister Imad Khamis was dismissed by President Bashar al-Assad, amid anti-government protests over deteriorating economic conditions.^[153] The new lows for the Syrian currency, and the dramatic increase in sanctions, began to appear to raise new concerns about the survival of the Assad government.^{[154][155][156]} Analysts noted that a resolution to the current banking crisis in Lebanon might be crucial to restoring stability in Syria.^[157]

Some analysts began to raise concerns that Assad might be on the verge of losing power; but that any such collapse in the regime might cause conditions to worsen, as the result might be mass chaos, rather than an improvement in political or economic conditions.

The first new sanctions took effect on 17 June. There will be additional sanctions implemented in August, in three different groups. There are increasing reports that food is becoming difficult to find, the country's economy is under severe pressure, and the whole regime could collapse due to the sanctions.[163] As of early 2022, Syria was still facing a major economic crisis due to sanctions and other economic pressures. there was some doubt of the Syrian government's ability to pay for subsisides for the population and for basic services and programs.^{[164][165][166]} The UN reported there were massive problems looming for Syria's ability to feed its population in the near future.^[167]

In one possibly positive sign for the well-being of Syria's population, several Arab countries began an effort to normalize relations with Syria, and to conclude a deal to provide energy supplies to Syria. This effort was led by Jordan, and included several other Arab countries.^[168]

Geography

Syria lies between latitudes

Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of al-Suwaydiyah, Karatchok, Rmelan near al-Hasakah, as well as al-Omar and al-Taym fields near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.^[85]

Biodiversity

Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions:

Bashar al-Assad President	Hussein Arnous Prime Minister

Syria is a

The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.^{[citation needed]} The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.^[210] About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.^{[citation needed]}

The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s,

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its

Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, the United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.^[212]

From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan and Yemen. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 2012.^[213] Syria also quit the Union for the Mediterranean.^[214] After 11 years, the Arab League readmitted Syria.^[215] Syria continues to foster good relations with its traditional allies, Iran and Russia, who are among the few countries which have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition.

Syria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbors closer.

International disputes

In 1939, while Syria was still a French mandate the French allowed a plebiscite regarding the Sanjak of Alexandretta joining to Turkey as part of a treaty of friendship in World War II. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic Turks who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in Adana and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the Hatay Province of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent.^[216] Despite the Turkish annexation of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, the Syrian government has refused to recognize Turkish sovereignty over the region since Independence, except for a short period during the year of 1949.^[217]

The western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region are since 1967 occupied by Israel and were in 1981 effectively annexed by Israel,^[218][219] whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the UNDOF maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the Purple Line. Israel's 1981 Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution 497 (1981) as "null and void and without international legal effect." Since then, General Assembly resolutions on "The Occupied Syrian Golan" reaffirm the illegality of Israeli occupation and annexation.^[220] The Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.^[221] The only remaining land Syria has in the Golan is a strip of territory which contains the abandoned city of Quneitra, the governorate's de facto capital Madinat al-Baath and many small villages, mostly populated by Circassians such as Beer Ajam and Hader.^{[dubious – discuss]} In March 2019, U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the United States will recognize Israel's annexation of the Golan Heights.^[222]

In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their twenty-nine-year military presence. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias.

The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."^[229] The 2011 Freedom House report^[230] ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World survey.^[231]

The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists,

In August 2013, the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".^[238] The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011.^[192] It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights.

In August 2014,

Syria is divided into 14

	No.	Governorate	Capital
	1	Latakia	Latakia
	2	Idlib	Idlib
	3	Aleppo	Aleppo
	4	Raqqa	Raqqa
	5	Al-Hasakah	Al-Hasakah
	6	Tartus	Tartus
	7	Hama	Hama
	8	Deir ez-Zor	Deir ez-Zor
	9	Homs	Homs
	10	Damascus	Damascus
	11	Rif Dimashq	Douma
	12	Quneitra	Quneitra
	13	Daraa	Daraa
	14	Al-Suwayda	Al-Suwayda

Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

The

On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.^[281] The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.^[282][283] Following the creation of the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.^[284]

Largest cities

v t e Largest cities or towns in Syria Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (2004 Census)
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Aleppo Damascus	1	Aleppo	Aleppo Governorate	2,132,100	11	Tartus	Tartus Governorate	115,769	Homs Latakia
	2	Damascus	Damascus	1,552,161	12	Jaramana	Rif Dimashq Governorate	114,363
	3	Homs	Homs Governorate	652,609	13	Douma, Syria	Rif Dimashq Governorate	110,893
	4	Latakia	Latakia Governorate	383,786	14	Manbij	Aleppo Governorate	99,497
	5	Hama	Hama Governorate	312,994	15	Idlib	Idlib Governorate	98,791
	6	Raqqa	Raqqa Governorate	220,488	16	Daraa	Daraa Governorate	97,969
	7	Deir ez-Zor	Deir ez-Zor Governorate	211,857	17	Al-Hajar al-Aswad	Rif Dimashq Governorate	84,948
	8	Hasakah	Al-Hasakah Governorate	188,160	18	Darayya	Rif Dimashq Governorate	78,763
	9	Qamishli	Al-Hasakah Governorate	184,231	19	Suwayda	As-Suwayda Governorate	73,641
	10	Sayyidah Zaynab	Rif Dimashq Governorate	136,427	20	Al-Thawrah	Raqqa Governorate	69,425

Agrarian reform

Agrarian reform measures were introduced into Syria which consisted of three interrelated programs: Legislation regulation the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners: legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control.^[285] Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership these reforms allowed for progress in redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history, since independence.

The first law passed (Law 134; passed 4 September 1958) in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights.^[286] This was designed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to land owners.^[286] This law led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which announced the implementation of new laws that would allow the regulation of working condition especially for women and adolescents, set hours of work, and introduce the principle of minimum wage for paid laborers and an equitable division of harvest for sharecroppers.^[287] Furthermore, it obligated landlords to honor both written and oral contracts, established collective bargaining, contained provisions for workers' compensation, health, housing, and employment services.^[286] Law 134 was not designed strictly to protect workers. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates.^[286]

Internet and telecommunications

As of 2015^[update], the Syrian economy relies upon inherently unreliable revenue sources such as dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran.

UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.^[85]

Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.

captagon), crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.^[85]

Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.[300] Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Syria's economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation.^[300] Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.^[301]

As of 2012^[update], because of the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two-thirds, from the figure of US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012.^[302] Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,^[303] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.^[304] As of 2012^[update], Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.^[302] Reconstruction needed because of the ongoing civil war will cost as much as US$10 billion.^[302] Sanctions have sapped the government's finances. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month.^[305] Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before the war to less than 15% in May 2012.^[306] Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.^[306]

In May 2015,

ISIS captured Syria's phosphate mines, one of the Syrian government's last chief sources of income.^[307] The following month, ISIS blew up a gas pipeline to Damascus that was used to generate heating and electricity in Damascus and Homs; "the name of its game for now is denial of key resources to the regime" an analyst stated.^[308] In addition, ISIS was closing in on Shaer gas field and three other facilities in the area—Hayan, Jihar and Ebla—with the loss of these western gas fields having the potential to cause Iran to further subsidize the Syrian government.^[309] Aleppo soap

is a popular product of Syria.

Drug industry

Syria is home to a burgeoning

captagon, an addictive amphetamine popular in the Arab world. As of 2021, the export of illegal drugs eclipsed the country's legal exports, leading the New York Times to call Syria "the world's newest narcostate".^[310] The drug exports allow the Syrian government to generate hard currency and bypass international sanctions.^{[310][311][312]} Captagon is Syria's primary export, valued at a minimum of US$3.4 billion annually, surpassing the country's largest legal export, olive oil, which is valued at around US$122 million dollars a year, as per estimates.^[313]

Petroleum industry

Main article: Petroleum industry in Syria

Syria's petroleum industry has been subject to a sharp decline. In September 2014, ISIS was producing more oil than the government at 80,000 bbl/d (13,000 m³/d) compared to the government's 17,000 bbl/d (2,700 m³/d) with the Syrian Oil Ministry stating that by the end of 2014, oil production had plunged further to 9,329 bbl/d (1,483.2 m³/d); ISIS has since captured a further oil field, leading to a projected oil production of 6,829 bbl/d (1,085.7 m³/d).^[292] In the third year of the Syrian Civil War, the deputy economy minister Salman Hayan stated that Syria's two main oil refineries were operating at less than 10% capacity.^[314]

Historically, the country produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m³/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 182,500 bbl/d (29,020 m³/d) in 2012.^[315] Since 2012 the production has decreased even more, reaching 32,000 barrels per day (5,100 m³/d) (bpd) in 2014. Official figures quantity the production in 2015 at 27,000 barrels per day (4,300 m³/d), but those figures have to be taken with precaution because it is difficult to estimate the oil that is currently produced in the rebel held areas.

Prior to the uprising, more than 90% of Syrian oil exports were to EU countries, with the remainder going to Turkey.^[306] Oil and gas revenues constituted in 2012 around 20% of total GDP and 25% of total government revenue.^[306]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Syria

Syria has four international airports (Damascus, Aleppo, Lattakia and Kamishly), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.^[316]

The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Syrian Railways (the Syrian railway company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively underdeveloped country, Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains.^[317]

The road network in Syria is 69,873 kilometres (43,417 miles) long, including 1,103 kilometres (685 miles) of expressways. The country also has 900 kilometres (560 miles) of navigable but not economically significant waterways.^[8]

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Syria

Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture. Domestic water use stands at only about 9% of total water use.^[318] A big challenge for Syria before the civil war was its high population growth (in 2006 the growth rate was 2.7%^[319]), leading to rapidly increasing demand for urban and industrial water.^[320]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Syria and List of cities in Syria

Further information: Syrians

Historical populations

Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1960	4,565,000	—
1970	6,305,000	+3.28%
1981	9,046,000	+3.34%
1994	13,782,000	+3.29%
2004	17,921,000	+2.66%
2011	21,124,000	+2.38%
2015	18,734,987	−2.96%
2019	18,528,105	−0.28%
2019 estimate[321] Source: Central Bureau of Statistics of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2011[322]

Most people live in the

Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria before the Civil War was about 99 per square kilometre (258 per square mile).^[323] According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.^[324]

In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era",

Syrian Civil War in March 2011;^[326] 4 million were outside the country as refugees.^[327] By 2020, the UN estimated that over 5.5 million Syrians were living as refugees in the region, and 6.1 million others were internally displaced.^[328]

Ethnic groups

Main article: Syrians

Syrians are an overall indigenous

Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken and written languages.^[332]

The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the

Kesab

.

There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the

Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.^[340]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Syria, Islam in Syria, and Christianity in Syria

Druzes.^[8] Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of Jabal al-Druze.^[342]

President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.

Syrian Civil War, at least 41,000 were Alawites.^[345]

monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.^[346] As per one estimate, the count of Christians affiliated with established denominations in Syria has dropped from approximately 2.5 million before the civil war, to about 500,000 in 2023.^[347]

Syria was once home to a substantial population of Jews, with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishii. Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel. The process was completed with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. In 2021 there were no Jews left in Syria.^[348]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Syria

Circassian,^[349] Chechen,^[349] Armenian,^[349] and finally Greek.^[349] However, none of these minority languages have official status.^[349]

Ma'loula

as well as two neighboring villages, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of Damascus.

English and French are widely spoken as second languages, but English is more often used.[350]

Education

Main article: Education in Syria

Aleppo University

Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or

post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.^[351][352]

Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party.^[353]

There are 6 state universities in Syria^[354] and 15 private universities.^[355] The top two state universities are Damascus University (210,000 students as of 2014)^[356] and University of Aleppo.^[357] The top private universities in Syria are: Syrian Private University, Arab International University, University of Kalamoon and International University for Science and Technology. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the Higher Institute of Business Administration, which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.^[358]

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Damascus University (3540th worldwide), the University of Aleppo (7176th) and Tishreen University (7968th).^[359]

Health

Main article: Health in Syria

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.^[360] The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010, or 74.2 years for males and 77.3 years for females.^[361]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Syria

Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.

Dabkeh in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.^[363]

Literature

Main article:

literature of Syria

Adunis

The literature of Syria has contributed to

Zakariyya Tamer

.

Ba'ath Party rule, since the

magical realism, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran

), which may also serve as media of dissent.

Music

Main article: Music of Syria

The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of

Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as for popular stars like Sabah Fakhri

.

Media

Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.^[366]

Nearly all of

Akram Raslam.^[370]

Cuisine

Main article: Syrian cuisine

Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini/courgette, and yabraʾ (stuffed grape leaves, the word yabraʾ deriving from the Turkish word yaprak, meaning leaf).

The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are

hors d'œuvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz

is always eaten together with meze.

Drinks in Syria vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion.

Arak, an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include ayran, jallab, white coffee, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.^[371]

See also

• Index of Syria-related articles
• International recognition of the Syrian National Council

References

Notes

1. Arabic: سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, romanized
   : Sūriyā
2. Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية, romanized
   : al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriya
3. ^ Sources:
   • ^[11]
   • Alsharif, Asma (16 August 2012). "Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022.
   • "Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis". DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018.
   • "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018.
   • "OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown". RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023.
4. ^ Sources:
   • * "Corruption Perceptions Index – 2022". Transparency International. 2022. Archived from the original on 4 February 2023.
   • "Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped". Al-Monitor. 31 January 2023. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023.
   • "Corruption in Syria". Worlddata.info. 2022. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022.
   • "Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions". The New Arab. 31 January 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023.
5. ^ Sources:^{[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]}
6. ^ ^{[25][26][27][28]}
7. ^ Sources describing Syria as a totalitarian state:
   • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. Madison Avenue, New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422.
     ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
     )
   • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: I. B. Tauris. p. 68.
     ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link
     )
   • Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33.
     ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7
     .
   • Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "12: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria: Internal Mobilization for Democratic Change, Militarization and Internationalization". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. p. 147.
     ISBN 978-0-415-52391-2
     .
8. ^ The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's PYD-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.^{[246][247][248]} Since then, the name is still used by locals and international observers.

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General references

• Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow Press.
  ISBN 0-8108-5078-8
• Finkelstein, Norman (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso.
  ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7
  .
• Glass, Charles (1990), Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East, Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London),
  ISBN 978-0-436-18130-6
  .
• Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing
  ISBN 0-7546-2375-0
• Forward Magazine (Syria's English monthly since 2007).
• Orsam Suriye Türkleri Raporu-Orsam Syria Turks
• Wright, Robin. 2008. Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East. Penguin.

Further reading

• van Dam, Nikolaos (2011), The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party, I. B. Tauris.
• Dawisha, A. I. (1980). Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. St. Martin's Press.
  ISBN 978-0-312-78203-0
  .
• Lawson, Fred H (2010), Demystifying Syria, Saqi.
• Maoz, M. (1986). Yaniv, A (ed.). Syria Under Assad. St. Martin's Press.
  ISBN 978-0-312-78206-1
  .
• Paton, L. B. (1981). The Early History of Syria and Palestine.
  ISBN 978-1-113-53822-2
  .
• Sahner, Christian C. (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-939670-2
  .
• Schlicht, Alfred (1980), "The role of foreign powers in the history of Lebanon and Syria from 1799 to 1861", Journal of Asian History, 14.
• Seale, Patrick (1987). The Struggle for Syria. Yale University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-300-03944-3
  .

External links

• Syria. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Syria at
  Curlie
• Syria web resources provided by GovPubs at the
  University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Syria profile from the BBC News
• Syria profiles of people and institutions provided by the Arab Decision project

• Wikimedia Atlas of Syria

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