Syria–Lebanon campaign
Syria–Lebanon campaign | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of the Second World War | |||||||||
Australian troops among the ruins of the Sidon Sea Castle, Lebanon, July 1941 | |||||||||
| |||||||||
Belligerents | |||||||||
Free France Czechoslovakia |
Germany | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Henri Dentz | |||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
~36,000 troops
1 landing ship 5 cruisers 8 destroyers |
Vichy France: ~35,000 troops
289 aircraft 2 | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
c. 4,652 Australian: 1,552 Free French: c. 1,300 Jordanian: c. 250 British and Indian: 1,800, 1,200 POW, 3,150 sick 41 aircraft[2] |
Vichy France: 6,352 (Vichy figures) 8,912 (British figures) 179 aircraft 1 submarine sunk 5,668 defectors Germany: 4 aircraft[1] |
The Syria–Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the invasion of
On 1 April 1941, the
The French conducted a vigorous defence of Syria but, on 10 July, as the 21st Australian Brigade was on the verge of entering Beirut, the French sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on 12 July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign.[4] The Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre (Convention of Acre) was signed on 14 July at the Sidney Smith Barracks on the outskirts of the city. While the surrender was being held, Time magazine referred to the Syria-Lebanon campaign as a "mixed show", and the campaign to this day remains relatively unknown, even in the countries that participated in it.
Background
On 28 May 1941, Admiral
Under the Paris Protocols, an agreement was also made for the French to launch an offensive against the British-held Iraqi oilfields, a proposal put forward by Darlan.
Prelude
Vichy Syria
Dentz was Commander in Chief of the Armée du Levant (
On 14 May 1941, a
Palestine and Iraq
The British-led invasion of Syria and Lebanon aimed at preventing Germany from using the
British forces to the south of Syria in Mandate Palestine were under the command of General Sir
Air support was provided by squadrons from the RAF and the
British forces in reserve included the
British plan of attack
The British plan of attack devised by Wilson called for four lines of invasion, in Damascus and Beirut, in Palestine, in northern Syria and
Once the two southern prongs were well engaged, a third force of formations drawn from Iraq Command, was planned to invade Syria. The bulk of the 10th Indian Infantry Division (Major-General
Campaign
War on land
Hostilities commenced on 8 June 1941. The battles of the campaign were:
- Battle of the Litani River (9 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
- Battle of Jezzine (13 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
- Battle of Sidon (13–15 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
- Battle of Kissoué (15–17 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine
- Battle of Damascus (18–21 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine
- Battle of Merdjayoun (19–24 June): part of the advance on Beirut and Damascus from Palestine
- Battle of Palmyra (1 July): part of the advance on Palmyra and Tripoli from Iraq
- Battle of Deir ez-Zor (3 July): part of the advance on central and northern Syria from Iraq
- Battle of Damour (5–9 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
- Battle of Beirut (12 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
War in the air
The initial advantage that the Vichy French Air Force (Armée de l'Air de Vichy) enjoyed did not last long. The Vichy French lost most of their aircraft destroyed on the ground where the flat terrain, the absence of infrastructure and the absence of modern
On 10 July, five D.520s attacked Bristol Blenheim bombers of 45 Squadron RAF, which were being escorted by seven Tomahawks from 3 Squadron RAAF.[44] The French pilots claimed three Blenheims but at least four D.520s were destroyed by the Australians.[44][45] The following day, a Dewoitine pilot shot down a Tomahawk from 3 Squadron, the only one lost during the campaign.[44] By the end of the campaign, the Vichy forces had lost 179 aircraft from about 289 committed to the Levant, with remaining aircraft with the range to do so evacuating to Rhodes.[46]
War at sea
The war at sea was not a major part of Operation Exporter, although some significant actions were fought. During the Battle of the Litani River, rough seas kept commandos from landing along the coast on the first day of battle. On 9 June 1941, the French destroyers Valmy and Guépard fired on the advancing Australians at the Litani River before being driven off by shore-based artillery-fire. The French destroyers then exchanged fire with the British destroyer HMS Janus. The Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser HMNZS Leander came to the aid of Janus along with six British destroyers and the French retired.[47] The Luftwaffe attempted to come to the aid of the French naval forces on 15 June. Junkers Ju 88s of II./LG 1 (2nd Group, Lehrgeschwader 1), attacked British warships forces off the Syrian coast and hit the destroyers HMS Ilex and Isis. That evening, French aircraft of the 4th Naval Air Group bombed British naval units off the Syrian coast.[47]
On 16 June, British torpedo aircraft sank the French destroyer Chevalier Paul, which had been en route from Toulon to Syria, carrying ammunition from Metropolitan France. The following day, British bombers attacked another French destroyer in the port of Beirut which was also carrying ammunition.[47] On the night of 22/23 June, Guépard fought a brief engagement with two British cruisers and six destroyers off the Syrian coast, before the French destroyer retired under the cover of darkness.[48] The French suffered further losses on 25 June, when the British submarine HMS Parthian torpedoed and sank the French submarine Souffleur off the Lebanese coast; shortly afterwards, the French tanker Adour, which was carrying the entire fuel supply for the French forces in the Middle East, was attacked by British torpedo aircraft and badly damaged.[49]
Armistice
On 10 July, as the Australian 21st Brigade was on the verge of entering Beirut, Dentz sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on 12 July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign. The
Aftermath
Analysis
Wavell had not wanted the Syrian distraction, given that British forces in the Mediterranean were already overstretched. However, political factors, including pressure from Churchill and CIGS in addition to guarantees by the Free French that any operation into Syria and Lebanon would meet with little resistance, forced his hand. In the event, the Vichy government ordered its soldiers to resist the invasion and its troops offered stiff resistance to the advancing British Empire forces. The Vichy government also conducted an effective propaganda campaign within France, encouraging the people to fight the "hereditary enemy" (Britain) and equating the defence of Syria as a matter of national honour.[51] As a result of the unexpected resistance British forces quickly required reinforcements, which could only be provided piecemeal. Many of the British and Commonwealth troops were novices and the hot, dry, mountainous terrain was a severe test, in which Indian Army units excelled. The Australian contingent had to cope with the worst country but conducted the most effective attack, "with a good plan carried through with great determination". The achievement of air superiority was delayed by the lack of aircraft but the urgency of the situation made it impossible for the naval and ground forces to wait. Vichy French airmen concentrated their attacks on ships and ground targets, which were highly effective until they were forced to move north. The scare caused by the German success in Crete had been exaggerated because the German parachute and glider invasions of The Netherlands and Crete had been very costly and there was little chance of the Germans gaining a bridgehead in Syria. The Germans withdrew from Syria to preserve their forces and to deprive the British of a pretext for invasion. The British invaded Syria anyway and gained naval and air bases far north of Suez, thus increasing the security of the oil route from Basra to Baghdad in Iraq to Haifa in Palestine.[52]
Casualties
In August, the Vichy authorities announced 6,352 casualties of whom 521 men had been killed, 1,037 were missing, 1,790 wounded and 3,004 men had been taken prisoner. After the war, Dentz stated that 1,092 men had been killed, which would mean 1,790 wounded, 466 missing and 3,004 prisoners against a British claim of 8,912 casualties of all natures.
Subsequent events
Operations against the Vichy regime in Syria could only be conducted with troops withdrawn from the Western Desert, a dispersal that contributed to the defeat of Operation Battleaxe and made the Syrian campaign take longer than necessary. Churchill had decided to sack Wavell in early May over his reluctance to divert forces to Iraq. Wavell was relieved on 22 June and relinquished command on 5 July, leaving for India two days afterwards.[59] In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from Brazzaville to congratulate the victors.[60] Free French General Georges Catroux was placed in control of Syria and Lebanon and on 26 November, shortly after assuming this post, Catroux recognized the independence of Syria and Lebanon in the name of the Free French movement.[61] After elections on 8 November 1943, Lebanon became an independent state on 22 November 1943 and on 27 February 1945, declared war on Germany and the Empire of Japan.[62]
By 1945, however, continued French presence in the Levant saw nationalist demonstrations which the French attempted to quell. With heavy Syrian casualties, notably in Damascus, Churchill opposed French action but after being rebuffed by Charles De Gaulle, he ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan with orders to fire on the French. Known as the Levant Crisis, British armored cars and troops reached Damascus, following which the French were escorted and confined to their barracks. With political pressure added, De Gaulle ordered a ceasefire and France withdrew from Syria the following year.[63]
Victoria Cross
- Lieutenant
- Private
See also
- Syria-Lebanon Campaign order of battle
- Asmahan
- Attack on Mers-el-Kébir
- 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
- Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)
- Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II
- French Colonial Empire
- List of French possessions and colonies
- Moshe Dayan#Eye patch
References
- ^ a b Sutherland & Canwell (2011), pp. 53–67.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 91.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 34.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 221, 335–337.
- ^ Keegan p. 676
- ^ a b c Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 35.
- ^ "Today in World War II History—May 28, 1941". 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
- ^ Raugh 1993, pp. 216–218.
- ^ a b Mollo (1981), p. 144.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 200, 206.
- ^ Long (1953), pp. 333–334, 363.
- ^ Richards (1974), p. 338.
- ^ a b Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 43.
- ^ Shores & Ehrengardt (July 1970).
- ^ Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 30.
- ^ de Wailly (2016), p. 246.
- ^ Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 44.
- ^ James 2017, p. 99.
- ^ Raugh 1993, pp. 211–216.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 204, 206–209, 216.
- ^ Smith (2010), p. 191.
- ^ Ben-Eliezer, Uri (1998). The Making of Israeli Militarism, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 205–206.
- ^ Playfair 2004, p. 209.
- ^ Joslen 2003, p. 50.
- ^ Playfair 2004, p. 211.
- ^ Chappell 1987, p. 19.
- ^ Long (1953), p. 526.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 214.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 203, 206.
- ^ James 2017, p. 119.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 210–212.
- ^ Long (1953), pp. 338, 413
- ^ Johnston (2005), pp. 48–55.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 208, 211, 219.
- ^ Long (1953), pp. 360–361.
- ^ Raugh 1993, pp. 221–222.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 217.
- ^ Mackenzie (1951), p. 121.
- ^ a b Raugh 1993, p. 222.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 213.
- ^ a b Mollo (1981), p. 146.
- ^ Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 94.
- ^ a b c Herington (1954), p. 94.
- ^ Brown (1983), p. 17.
- ^ Shores & Ehrengardt (August 1970), pp. 283–284.
- ^ a b c Piekałkiewicz (1987), p. 144.
- ^ Piekałkiewicz, p. 146
- ^ Piekałkiewicz, p. 147
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 221, 335–337.
- ^ Barr, James (2011). A Line in the Sand: Britain and France and the Struggle that Shaped the Middle East (1st ed.). London: Simon and Schuster. p. 218.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 221–222.
- ^ Long (1953), p. 526.
- ^ Playfair (2004), pp. 214, 221.
- ^ Auchinleck (1946), p. 4216.
- ^ Auchinleck (1946), p. 4217.
- ^ Long (1953), p. 526.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 222.
- ^ Raugh 1993, pp. 222, 238–239.
- ^ "Foreign News: Reconquering An Empire". Time. August 4, 1941.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 221.
- ^ Martin (2011), p. 11.
- ^ Luce, Henry Robinson (1945). Time, Volume 45. Time Incorporated. pp. 25–26.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 211.
- ^ James 2017, pp. 203–205.
- ^ Playfair (2004), p. 220.
- ^ James 2017, pp. 225–227.
Sources
Books
- Auchinleck, Claud (1946). Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941. London: War Office. in "No. 37695". The London Gazette (Supplement). 20 August 1946. pp. 4215–4230.
- Brune, Peter (2003). A Bastard of a Place: The Australians in Papua. Crows Nest, NSW: ISBN 978-1-74114-011-8.
- Chappell, Mike (1987). British Battle Insignia: 1939–1940. Men-At-Arms. Vol. II. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-0-85045-739-1.
- de Wailly, H. (2016) [2006]. Invasion Syria, 1941: Churchill and De Gaulle's Forgotten War [Syrie 1941: la guerre occultée: Vichystes contre gaullistes]. trans. W. Land (2nd English trans. ed.). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78453-449-3.
- Gaunson, A.B. The Anglo–French Clash in Lebanon and Syria, 1940–45 (St. Martin's Press, 1987).
- Herington, John (1954). Air War Against Germany and Italy. Australia in the War of 1939-1945. Vol. 3. Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
- James, Richard (2017). Australia's War with France: The Campaign in Syria and Lebanon, 1941. Newport, New South Wales: Big Sky Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925520-92-7.
- Johnston, Mark (2005). The Silent 7th: An Illustrated History of the 7th Australian Division 1940–46. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-191-7.
- Joslen, H. F. (2003) [1960]. Orders of Battle: Second World War, 1939–1945. Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval and Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84342-474-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280670-3.
- Long, Gavin (1953). "Chapters 16 to 26". Greece, Crete and Syria. Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Series 1, Army. Vol. II (1st online ed.). Canberra: OCLC 3134080.
- OCLC 1412578.
- Martin, Chris (2011). World War II The Book of Lists. Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6163-2.
- Mollo, Andrew (1981). The Armed Forces of World War II. London: Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-54478-5.
- Owen, James (2012). Commando. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-349-12362-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7137-1665-8.
- Playfair, Major-General I. S. O.; et al. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1956]. Butler, J. R. M. (ed.). The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. II. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84574-066-5.
- Raugh, H. E. (1993). Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship (1st ed.). London: Brassey's. ISBN 978-0-08-040983-2.
- Richards, Denis (1974) [1953]. Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight At Odds. Vol. I (pbk. ed.). London: ISBN 978-0-11-771592-9. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
- Shores, Christopher F.; Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques (1987). L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin – 14 juillet 1941 [Vichy Air Combat: Syria Campaign, 8 June – 14 July 1941] (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Lavauzelle. ISBN 978-2-7025-0171-9.
- Smith, C. (2010) [2009]. England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy 1940–1942 (Phoenix ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-7538-2705-5.
- Sutherland, Jon; Canwell, Diane (2011). Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Aviation. pp. 53–67. ISBN 978-1-84884-336-3.
- Sutton, David. Syria and Lebanon 1941: The Allied Fight Against the Vichy French (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2022).
- Wavell, Archibald (1946). Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria and Iran from 10th April, 1941 to 12th January, 1942. London: War Office. in "No. 37685". The London Gazette (Supplement). 13 August 1946. pp. 4093–4102.
Journals
- Anderson, Betty S., and Götz Nordbruch. "Nazism in Syria and Lebanon: The Ambivalence of the German Option, 1933–1945." International Journal of Middle East Studies 44.1 (2012).
- Baudru, Remi (October 1993). "Quand l'Armée de l'air partit en Syrie, combattre la RAF: ce que recontent les photos" [When the French Air Force Fought the RAF in Syria: What the Photos Say]. Le Fana de l'Aviation (in French) (287): 16–25. ISSN 0757-4169.
- Bou-Nacklie, N. E. (1994). "The 1941 Invasion of Syria and Lebanon: The Role of the Local Paramilitary". Middle Eastern Studies. 30 (3): 512–529. ISSN 1743-7881.
- Shores, Christopher F.; Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques (July 1970). "Syrian Campaign, 1941: Forestalling the Germans: Air Battles Over S. Lebanon". Air Pictorial. 32 (7). Part I: 242–247. OCLC 29897622.
- Shores, Christopher F.; Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques (August 1970). "Syrian Campaign, 1941: Breaking the Back of Vichy Air Strength Conclusion". Air Pictorial. 32 (8). Part II: 280–284. OCLC 29897622.
Further reading
- Gaunson, Alexander Bruce (1981). To End a Mandate: Sir E. L. Spears and the Anglo-French Collision in the Levant, 1941–1945. hydra.hull.ac.uk (PhD). University of Hull. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.348610. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
External links
- "Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria, and Iran From 10th April, 1941 to 12th January 1942" (PDF). Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37685. August 13, 1946. Retrieved September 26, 2009.
- "Claude Auchinleck's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941". Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37695. August 20, 1946. Retrieved November 6, 2009.
- Australian War Memorial, 2005, "Syrian Campaign"
- "World War: MIDDLE EASTERN THEATER: The Syrian Show Begins". Time. June 16, 1941.
- "Exit With A Flourish" – Time magazine article, July 28, 1941
- The Palmach