Kurds in Syria
Total population | |
---|---|
Estimates from 1.6 million to 2.5 million | |
Religion | |
Majority Sunni Islam[7] Minority Yazidism, also Shia Islam, Christianity[8] |
The Kurdish population of Syria is the country's largest ethnic minority,[9] usually estimated at around 10% of the Syrian population[10][11][9][12][13][14] and 5% of the Kurdish population. [citation needed]
The majority of Syrian Kurds are originally
further south.Human rights organizations have accused the
Demographics
Syrian Kurds live mainly in three Kurdish pockets in northern Syria adjacent to Turkey.[5] Many Kurds also live in the large cities and metropolitan areas of the country, for example, in the neighborhood Rukn al-Din in Damascus, which was formerly known as Hayy al Akrad (Kurdish Quarter), and the Aleppo neighborhoods of al Ashrafiya[23] and Sheikh Maqsood.[24]
Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria, and make up between 5 and 10 percent of the Syrian population.[25][13][2][11][1] The estimates are diluted due to the effects of the Syrian civil war and the permeability of the Syrian-Turkish border.[26] The Kurdish population in Syria is relatively small in comparison to the Kurdish populations in nearby countries, such as Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. The majority of Syrian Kurds speak Kurmanji, a Kurdish dialect spoken in Turkey and northeastern Iraq and Iran.[27]
It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century around 12,000 Kurds lived in
Even though some Kurdish communities have a long history in Syria,[32] most Syrian Kurds originate from Turkey and have immigrated during the 20th century to escape the harsh repression of the Kurds in that country.[15] Kurds were later joined in Syria by a new large group that drifted out of Turkey throughout the interwar period during which the Turkish campaign to assimilate its Kurdish population was at it highest.[15] The government has used the fact that some Kurds fled to Syria during the 1920s to claim that Kurds are not indigenous to the country and to justify its discriminatory policies against them.[15]
History
Ayyubid period
In the 12th century, Kurdish and other Muslim regiments accompanied Saladin, who was a Kurd from Tikrit, on his conquest of the Middle East and establishment of the Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1341), which was administered from Damascus. The Kurdish regiments that accompanied Salidin established self-ruled areas in and around Damascus.[33] These settlements evolved into the Kurdish sections of Damascus of Hayy al-Akrad (the Kurdish quarter) and the Salhiyya districts located in the north-east of Damasacus on Mount Qasioun.[34]
Ottoman period
The Kurdish community's role in the military continued under the Ottomans. Kurdish soldiers and policeman from the city were tasked with both maintaining order and protecting the pilgrims’ route toward
The Kurdish dynasty of Janbulads ruled the region of Aleppo as governors for the Ottomans from 1591 to 1607.[36] At the beginning of the 17th century, Kurdish tribes were forcefully settled in the vicinity of Jarabulus and Seruj by the Ottoman sultans.[37] In the mid-18th century, Ottomans recognized Milli tribal leaders as iskan başı or chief of sedentarization in Raqqa area. They were given taxing authority and controlling other tribes in the region. In 1758, Milli chief and iskan başı Mahmud bin Kalash entered Khabur valley, subjugated the local tribes and brought the area under control of Milli confederation and attempted to set up an independent principality. In 1800, the Ottoman government appointed the Milli chief Timur as governor of Raqqa (1800–1803).[38][39][40]
The Danish writer Carsten Niebuhr, who traveled to Jazira in 1764, recorded five nomadic Kurdish tribes (Dukurie, Kikie, Schechchanie, Mullie and Aschetie) and six Arab tribes (Tay, Kaab, Baggara, Geheish, Diabat and Sherabeh).[41] According to Niebuhr, the Kurdish tribes were settled near Mardin in Turkey, and paid the governor of that city for the right of grazing their herds in the Syrian Jazira.[42] These Kurdish tribes gradually settled in villages and cities and are still present in Jazira (modern Syria's Hasakah Governorate).[43]
In the mid 1800s, the Emirate of
In other parts of the country during this period, Kurds became local chiefs and tax farmers in Akkar (Lebanon) and the Qusayr highlands between Antioch and Latakia in northwestern Syria. The Afrin Plateau northwest of Aleppo, just inside what is today Syria, was officially known as the "Sancak of the Kurds" in Ottoman documents.[52] The Millis revolted against the Ottoman government after the death of their leader Ibrahim Pasa and some of them eventually settled for the most part on the Syrian side of the newly drawn Turkish-Syrian border of 1922.[53][54]
When Maurice Abadie, a French general, was overseeing the French occupation of Syria, he made some observations on the settlements of Kurds in 1920:
Over the course of the past century the Kurds have migrated and spread throughout northern Syria.
Those who have spread to the west of the Euphrates have come from the valleys of Kurdistan. They have gradually settled in and live alongside the Turks, Turkmen, Christians and Arabs, all of whose customs they have adopted to some degree.[55]
Treaty of Sèvres and colonial borders
Following World War I, the victorious
Immigration from Turkey
Waves of Kurdish Tribes and their families arrived into Syria originally came from
French Mandate
Under the French Mandate of Syria, newly-arriving Kurds were granted citizenship by
Kurdish demands for autonomy
Early demands for a Kurdish autonomy came from the Kurdish deputy Nuri Kandy of Kurd Dagh, who asked the authorities of the French mandate to grant an administrative autonomy to all the areas with a Kurdish majority in 1924. Also the Kurdish tribes of the Barazi Confederation demanded autonomy for the Kurdish regions within the French Mandate.
In the mid-1930s, there arose a new
Syrian independence
Two early presidents,
Syrian Arab Republic
Jazira census
On 23 August 1962, the government conducted a special population census only for the province of Jazira based on reports of illegal infiltration of tens of thousands of Turkish Kurds into Syria.[75] As a result, around 120,000 Kurds in Jazira (20% of Syrian Kurds) were stripped of their Syrian citizenship even though they were in possession of Syrian identity cards.[76][77] The inhabitants who had Syrian identity cards were told to hand them over to the administration for renewal. However, many of those Kurds who submitted their cards received nothing in return. Many were arbitrarily categorized as ajanib ('foreigners'), while others who did not participate in the census were categorized as maktumin ('unregistered'), an even lower status than the ajanib; for all intents and purposes,[77] these unregistered Kurds did not exist in the eyes of the state. They could not get jobs, become educated, own property or participate in politics.[77] In some cases, classifications varied even within Kurdish families: parents had citizenship but not their children, a child could be a citizen but not his or her brothers and sisters. Those Kurds who lost their citizenship were often dispossessed of their lands, which were given by the state to Arab and Assyrian settlers.[78] A media campaign was launched against the Kurds with slogans such as Save Arabism in Jazira! and Fight the Kurdish Menace!.[79]
These policies in the Jazira region coincided with the beginning of Barzani's uprising in Iraqi Kurdistan and discovery of oilfields in the Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria. In June 1963, Syria took part in the Iraqi military campaign against the Kurds by providing aircraft, armoured vehicles and a force of 6,000 soldiers. Syrian troops crossed the Iraqi border and moved into the Kurdish town of Zakho in pursuit of Barzani's fighters[80]
Arab cordon
Syrian policies in the 1970s led to Arabs resettling in majority Kurdish areas.[81] In 1965, the Syrian government decided to create an Arab cordon (Hizam Arabi) in the Jazira region along the Turkish border. The cordon was along the Turkish-Syrian border and 10–15 kilometers wide,[82] stretched from the Iraqi border in the east to Ras Al-Ain in the west. The implementation of the Arab cordon plan began in 1973 and Bedouin Arabs were brought in and resettled in Kurdish areas. The toponymy of the area such as village names were Arabized. According to the original plan, some 140,000 Kurds had to be deported to the southern desert near Al-Raad. Although Kurdish farmers were dispossessed of their lands, they refused to move and give up their houses. Among these Kurdish villagers, those who were designated as alien were not allowed to own property, to repair a crumbling house or to build a new one.[83] In 1976 the further implementation of the arabization policy along the Turkish border was officially dropped by Hafez al Assad. The achieved demographic changes were not reverted,[82] and in 1977 a ban on non-arabic place names was issued.[84]
Newroz protests
In March 1986, a few thousand Kurds wearing Kurdish costume gathered in the
Qamishli riots
After an incident in a
KNAS (Kurdnas) formation
The Kurdistan National Assembly of Syria was formed to represent Syrian Kurds based on two major conferences, one at the US Senate in March 2006 and the other at the EU parliament in Brussels in 2006. The Kurdistan National Assembly of Syria (KNAS) seeks democracy for Syria and supports granting equal rights to Kurds and other Syrian minorities. They seek to transform Syria into a federal state, with a democratic system and structure for the federal government and provincial governments.[citation needed]
Syrian Civil War
Following the
Kurdish rebellion
Protests in the Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria evolved into armed clashes after the opposition Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD) and Kurdish National Council (KNC) signed a cooperation agreement on 12 July 2012 that created the Kurdish Supreme Committee as the governing body of all Kurdish controlled areas.[95][96][97]
Under the administration of the Kurdish Supreme Committee, the
Kurdish-inhabited
On 9 October 2019,
Mistreatment by Syrian government
International and Kurdish human rights organizations have accused the Syrian government of discriminating against the Kurdish minority.[104][105][106] Amnesty International also reported that Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted.[107]
Language
Northern Kurdish Central Kurdish Southern Kurdish (Gorani is included) | Zazaki mixed dialect areas |
The Kurdish language is the second most spoken language in Syria, after Arabic.[108]
The Kurds often speak the Kurdish language in public, unless all those present do not. According to the Human Rights Watch, Kurds in Syria are not allowed to officially use the Kurdish language, are not allowed to register children with Kurdish names, are prohibited to start businesses that do not have Arabic names, are not permitted to build Kurdish private schools and are prohibited from publishing books and other materials written in Kurdish.[109] In 1988 it was prohibited also to sing in non-arabic language at weddings or festivities.[110]
There are also some "
Decree 768
The decree 768 of the year 2000, prohibited shops to sell cassettes or videos in Kurdish language. The decree also encouraged to implement older restrictions of the Kurdish language.[112]
Citizenship
In 1962, 20 percent of Syria's Kurdish population were stripped of their Syrian citizenship following a very highly controversial census raising concerns among human rights groups. According to the Syrian government, the reason for this enactment was due to groups of Kurds infiltrating the Al-Hasakah Governorate in 1945. The Syrian government claims that the Kurds came from neighboring countries, especially Turkey, and crossed the Syrian border illegally. The government claims that these Kurds settled down, gradually, in the region in cities like Amuda and Qamishli until they accounted for the majority in some of these cities. The government also claims that many Kurds were capable of registering themselves illegally in the Syrian civil registers. The government further speculated that Kurds intended to settle down and acquire property, especially after the issue of the agricultural reform law, to benefit from land redistribution.[109] However, according to Human Rights Watch, the Syrian government falsely claimed that many of the Kurds who were the original inhabitants of the land were foreigners, and in turn, violated their human rights by stripping them of their Syrian citizenship.[113]
As a result of government claims of an increase in illegal immigration, the Syrian government decided to conduct a general census on 5 October 1962 in the governorate with claims that its sole purpose was to purify registers and eliminate the alien infiltrators. As a result, the verified registrations of the citizens of Syria were included in the new civil registers. The remaining, which included 100,000 Kurds, were registered as foreigners (or "ajanib") in special registers.[109][114] Many others did not participate in the census through choice or other circumstances; they are known as "maktoumeen", meaning "unrecorded".[114] Since then, the number of stateless Kurds has grown to more than 200,000.[115] According to Refugees International, there are about 300,000 Kurdish non-citizens in Syria; however, Kurds dispute this number and estimate about 500,000. An independent report has confirmed that there are at least 300,000 non-citizen Kurds living in Syria.[114]
According to the Human Rights Watch, by many accounts, the special census was carried out in an arbitrary manner separating members of the same families and classifying them differently. HRW claims that some Kurds in the same family became citizens while others became foreigners suggesting an inaccuracy in the Syrian government's process; HRW also alleges that some of the Kurds who had served in the Syrian army lost citizenship while those who bribed officials kept theirs.[113] Stateless Kurds also do not have the option of legally relocating to another country because they lack passports or other internationally recognized travel documents. In Syria, other than in the governorate of Al-Hasakah, foreigners cannot be employed at government agencies and state-owned enterprises; they may not legally marry Syrian citizens. Kurds with foreigner status do not have the right to vote in elections or run for public office, and when they attend universities they are often persecuted and cannot be awarded with university degrees.[114] non-citizens Kurds living in Syria are not awarded school certificates and are often unable to travel outside of their provinces.[114]
In April 2011, the President signed Decree 49 which provides citizenship for Kurds who were registered as foreigners in Hasaka.[116] However, a recent independent report has suggested that the actual number of non-citizens Kurds who obtained their national ID cards following the decree does not exceed 6,000, leaving the remainder of 300,000 non-citizens Kurds living in Syria in a state of uncertainty.[114] One newly nationalized Kurd has been reported as saying: ‘I’m pleased to have my ID card .... But not until the process is completed will I truly trust the intentions of this action. Before my card is activated, I must have an interview, no doubt full of interrogation and intimidation, with State Security. Citizenship should not be a privilege. It is my right.’[114] According to one researcher, the Kurdish street perceived the measure of providing citizenship as 'not well-intentioned, but simply an attempt to distance Kurds from the developing protest movement of the Syrian Revolution.'[117]
Influential Syrian Kurds
Politicians
- Ibrahim Hananu (1869–1935), Ottoman municipal official and later a leader of a revolt against the French presence in northern Syria.
- Adib Shishakli (1909–1964), Syrian military leader and President of Syria (1953–1954).
- Ata Bey al-Ayyubi (1877–1951), Prime Minister of Syria (1936) and President of Syria (1943).
- Husni al-Za'im (1897–1949), Prime Minister and President of Syria (1949).
- Husni al-Barazi (1895–1975), Prime Minister of Syria (1942–1943)
- Muhsin al-Barazi (1904–1949), Prime Minister of Syria (1949).
- Khalid Bakdash (1912–1995), leader (1936–1995) of the Syrian Communist Party.
- Qadri Jamil (born 1952), Kurdish politician and one of the leaders of the People's Will Party and the Popular Front for Change and Liberation.
- Mahmoud al-Ayyubi (born 1932), Prime Minister of Syria (1972–1976)
- Muhammad Mustafa Mero (born 1941), Prime Minister of Syria (2000–2003).
- Daham Miro (1921–2010), Kurdish political leader and former chairman of the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria.
- Kurdish Future Movement.
Singers
- Ciwan Haco (born 1957), Kurdish singer.
Authors
- Cigerxwîn (1903–1984), influential Kurdish writer and poet.
- Osman Sabri (1905–1993), Kurdish poet, writer and journalist.
- Haitham Hussein (born 1978), Novelists and Journalist.
- Salim Barakat (born 1951), Novelist and poet.
Scholars
- Sunniauthority in the country.
- Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti(1929–2013), influential Islamic scholar.
- Muhammad Kurd Ali (1876–1953), historian and literary critic.
Actors
- Muna Wassef (born 1942), actress.
- Khaled Taja (1939–2012), actor.
- Caresse Bashar (born 1976), actress of Kurdish origin.
Sports
- Jwan Hesso (born 1982), Syrian footballer.
- Kawa Hesso (born 1984), Syrian footballer.
- Haytham Kajjo (1976–2002), Syrian footballer.
- Muhammad Albicho (born 1985), Syrian footballer.
- Ahmad Al Salih(born 1989), Syrian footballer.
See also
- Al-Jazira province
- History of the Kurdish people
- Arabic Belt
- National Organization of Kurdish Youth
- A Modern History of the Kurds by David McDowall
References
- ^ ISSN 1553-8133. Archived from the original on 1 June 2007. Retrieved 25 June 2019. CIA estimates are as of June 2019[update]"Ethnic groups: Sunni Arab ~50%, Alawite ~15%, Kurd ~10%, Levantine ~10%, other ~15% (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Nusairi, Assyrian, Turkoman, Armenian)"
- ^ a b "Who are the Kurds?". BBC News (Online ed.). 31 October 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
- ISBN 9781841623146.
- ^ "Syria rejects Russian proposal for Kurdish federation". Al-Monitor. 24 October 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
- ^ JSTOR 25816505.
- ^ "Syrian Kurds celebrate Kurdish Language Day". Kurdistan24. 16 May 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
- ^ https://minorityrights.org/communities/kurds-5/
- Ekurd.net. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
- ^ ISBN 978-1440858352,
Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4-5 percent of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1 percent).
- BBC.com. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
Kurds make up between 7% and 10% of Syria's population.
- ^ a b "Who are Syria's minority groups?". SBS News (Online ed.). Special Broadcasting Service. 11 September 2015. Retrieved 25 November 2017. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria, constituting around 10 per cent of the population – around 2 million of the pre-conflict population of around 22 million.
- New York Times(Online ed.). Retrieved 5 August 2020.
Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria, making up between 5 and 10 percent of the Syrian population of 21 million in 2011
- ^ a b Fabrice Balanche (2018). Sectarianism in Syria's Civil War (PDF) (Online ed.). Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019. In this atlas, French geographer Balanche suggests that "As of 2010, Syria’s population was roughly 65% Sunni Arab, 15% Kurdish, 10% Alawite, 5% Christian, 3% Druze, 1% Ismaili, and 1% Twelver Shia." (page 13) "The number of Kurds in Syria is often underestimated by analysts, who tend to cap them at 10% of the population. In fact, they are closer to 15%."(page 16) The 2018 breakdown is 1% Sunni Arab, 16% Kurdish, 13% Alawite, 3% Christian, 4% Druze, 1% Ismaili, 1% Twelver Shia, 1% Turkmen (page 22) Balanche also refers to his Atlas du ProcheOrient Arabe (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2011), p. 36."
- ISSN 1468-1099.
Some 15% to 17% of the Syrian population is Kurdish. Whether they can achieve statehood will depend on a reading of international law and on how the international community reacts.
- ^ ISBN 1-4051-0681-6.
- .
- ^ "Syria: End Persecution of Kurds". Human Rights Watch. 26 November 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
- ^ Ian Black (16 July 2010). "Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says]". The Guardian.
- ^ Morris, Loveday (9 August 2012). "Syrian President Bashar al-Assad accused of arming Kurdish separatists for attacks against Turkish government". The Independent. London.
- ^ "Syrian Kurdish moves ring alarm bells in Turkey". Reuters. 24 July 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ "Kurds seek autonomy in a democratic Syria". BBC World News. 16 August 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
- ^ "The Kurds are creating a state of their own in northern Syria". The Economist. 23 May 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
- ^ Tejel (2009) p.100
- ISBN 978-3-85476-665-0.
- ^ Kingsley, Patrick (14 October 2019). "Who Are the Kurds, and Why Is Turkey Attacking Them in Syria?". New York Times. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- JSTOR 26568532.
- ISBN 978-0-203-89211-4.
- ISBN 978-0-203-89211-4.
- ^ . Retrieved 29 March 2012.
- ^ ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-203-89211-4.
- ISBN 0-7453-2499-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-03911-209-8.
- ISBN 0745324991.
- ^ "Community Post: 5 Trailblazing Medical Students Of The 19th Century". BuzzFeed Community. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07196-4.
- ISBN 978-1-134-09643-5.
- JSTOR 25818086.
- ISBN 978-0-415-42440-0.
- ^ Winter, Stefan (2009). "Les Kurdes de Syrie dans les archives ottomanes (XVIIIe siècle)". Études Kurdes. 10: 125–156.
- ^ Carsten Niebuhr (1778). Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. (Mit Kupferstichen u. Karten.) – Kopenhagen, Möller 1774–1837 (in German). p. 419.
- ^ Carsten Niebuhr (1778). Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. (Mit Kupferstichen u. Karten.) – Kopenhagen, Möller 1774–1837 (in German). p. 389.
- ISBN 0-203-99341-1.
- S2CID 154897102.
- ISBN 9781412835923.
- ^ ISBN 9781593334130.
- ISBN 9780953824861.
- ^ Travis, Hannibal. Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237–77, 293–294.
- ISBN 978-1-4128-3592-3.
- ISBN 9781134096435.
- ^ Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society (PDF). pp. 25–29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
- ISBN 2724704118.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-8047-7570-0.
- ^ Abadie, Maurice (1959). Türk Verdünü, Gaziantep: Antep'in dört muhasarası. Aintab: Gaziantep Kültür Derneği. p. 5. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
- ISBN 0745324991.
- ISBN 978-3-85476-665-0.
- ISBN 1405106816.
- ISBN 0-415-07265-4.
- ASIN B0006AOLOA.
- ^ "derStandard.at". DER STANDARD. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-139-48693-4.
- ISBN 0745324991.
- ^ Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society (PDF). pp. 25–29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-6666-3.
- ^ John Joseph, Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East, p. 107.
- ^ Tejel, pp.27–28
- ^ Tejel, p.28
- ^ The 1930 Constitution is integrally reproduced in: Giannini, A. (1931). "Le costituzioni degli stati del vicino oriente" (in French). Istituto per l’Oriente. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
- ISBN 978-2-84586-441-2. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
- ^ Jordi Tejel Gorgas, "Les territoires de marge de la Syrie mandataire : le mouvement autonomiste de la Haute Jazîra, paradoxes et ambiguïtés d’une intégration" nationale" inachevée (1936–1939)" (The territory margins of the Mandatory Syria : the autonomist movement in Upper Jazîra, paradoxs and ambiguities of an uncompleted "national" integration, 1936–39), Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée, 126, November 2009, p. 205-222
- ^ ISBN 978-1-558766150.
- ^ "The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (al-Parti)". Carnegie Middle East Center. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ ISBN 0773498168.
- ^ McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473–474.
- ISBN 0773498168.
- ^ a b c Gunter, Michael M. (2016), p.97
- ^ Tejel, p. 51
- ^ Tejel, p. 52
- ISBN 0-415-07265-4, pp.151–52
- ISBN 978-0-415-07265-6.
- ^ ISBN 0773498168.
- ISBN 0-415-07265-4, pp.157, 158, 161
- ISBN 978-1-134-09643-5.
- ISBN 0-415-07265-4, pp.163–164
- ISBN 978-1-134-09643-5.
- ^ "www.amude.com". Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "With A Dose Of Caution, Kurds Oppose Syrian Regime". NPR.org. 5 April 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- HRW, 19 March 2004.
- ^ Cajsa Wikstrom. "Syria: 'A kingdom of silence'". Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Syria Funeral Shooting: Forces Open Fire On Mashaal Tammo Mourners, Huffington Post, 10/8/11
- ^ Thousands of Kurds could awaken against Syrian regime, By Adrian Blomfield, 9 October 2011
- ^ Syria's Kurds: part of the revolution?, Guardian, By Thomas McGee, 26 April 2012
- ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (10 June 2012). "Syrian Forces Shell Cities as Opposition Picks Leader". The New York Times.
- ^ "Syrian Kurds Try to Maintain Unity". Rudaw. 17 July 2012. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
- ^ "Syria: Massive protests in Qamishli, Homs". CNTV. 19 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
- ^ "Syrian Kurdish Official: Now Kurds are in Charge of their Fate". Rudaw. 27 July 2012. Archived from the original on 1 August 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
- ^ a b "More Kurdish Cities Liberated As Syrian Army Withdraws from Area". Rudaw. 20 July 2012. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
- ^ "Armed Kurds Surround Syrian Security Forces in Qamishli". Rudaw. 22 July 2012. Archived from the original on 24 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
- ^ "Girke Lege Becomes Sixth Kurdish City Liberated in Syria". Rudaw. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
- ^ "Syria's war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey's allies if they don't convert to extremism". The Independent. 12 March 2018.
- ^ "Displaced Kurds from Afrin need help, activist says". The Jerusalem Post. 26 March 2018.
- ^ "Tens of thousands flee as Turkey presses Syria offensive". The Irish Times. 10 October 2019.
- ^ ""Support Kurds", 14 May 2010". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Kurdish Organization for Human Rights in Austria," 14 December 2010 Memorandum of Kurds in syria "Mesopotamische Gesellschaft « Memorandum of KURDS IN SYRIA". Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ISBN 0-8453-4809-4(1987) p. 220
- ^ "amnestyusa.org". Archived from the original on 10 March 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ISBN 978-90-04-14476-7
- ^ a b c "hrw.org". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Syria, The silenced Kurds". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
- ^ Tarlan, Kemal Vural, ed. (2017), The Dom, The "Other" Asylum Seekers From Syria: Discrimination, Isolation and Social Exclusion: Syrian Dom Asylum Seekers in the Crossfire (PDF), Kırkayak Kültür Sanat ve Doğa Derneği, p. 21, archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2018, retrieved 17 June 2018
- ISBN 978-1-134-09643-5.
- ^ a b "Syria Silenced Kurds, Human Rights Watch". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Documentary On The non-citizens Kurds of Syria". Rudaw. 26 September 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012.
- ^ voanews.com Archived 14 September 2008 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
- SANA, 8 April 2011
- ^ The Stateless Kurds of Syria: Ethnic Identity and National I.D., Thomas McGee, 2014
Further reading
- Tejel, Jordi (2009). Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415424400.