Taapaca

Coordinates: 18°06′S 69°30′W / 18.1°S 69.5°W / -18.1; -69.5
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the mountain in Peru named Tara Paka, see Qachini. For other uses, see Tarapacá.

Taapaca, Tara Paka
Nevados de Putre, Taapaca volcano (right)
Highest point
Elevation5,860 m (19,230 ft)[1][2]
Coordinates18°06′S 69°30′W / 18.1°S 69.5°W / -18.1; -69.5[2]
Geography
Taapaca, Tara Paka is located in Arica y Parinacota
Taapaca, Tara Paka
Taapaca, Tara Paka
pre-Columbian

Taapaca is a

Central Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, one of four distinct volcanic chains in South America. The town of Putre
lies at the southwestern foot of the volcano.

Like other volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone, Taapaca formed from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. It lies on the western margin of the Altiplano high plateau, on top of older volcanic and sedimentary units. Taapaca has mainly erupted dacite, in the form of numerous lava domes, although an andesitic stratovolcano is also present.

Volcanic activity at Taapaca occurred in several stages starting during the

BCE. The Chilean Geological Service monitors the volcano as it is a hazard to Putre, but eruptions could also impact local roads and areas as far east as Bolivia
.

Name

The term tara paka is Aymara for "two-headed eagle"[4] or "winter (prey) bird",[5] and Quechua for Andean eagle.[6] It is also known as Nevados de Putre;[7] sometimes "Nevados de Putre" is used to refer to the volcanic complex and "Taapaca" to its highest summit.[8] The term taapaca may also be the origin of the term tarapaca and could be an Aymara name for the founder deity Viracocha.[9] Putre in turn appears to mean "sound of falling water" in Aymara.[5]

Geography and geology

Taapaca lies in the

Tambo Quemado-Arica international road.[11]

Regional setting

Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the

Peru-Chile Trench, at rates of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year) and 2 centimetres per year (0.8 in/year), respectively.[12] The process generates fluids that are ultimately responsible for the evolution of subduction-associated magmas when they interact with the mantle wedge above the downgoing plate.[13]

This subduction does not result in volcanic activity everywhere; in places where the process is shallower ("flat slab" subduction) there is no recent volcanism. Volcanism has been ongoing in the Andes since about 185 million years ago, with an increase about 27 million years ago when the Farallon Plate broke up.[12] In 1994, the Andes were considered to contain about 178 volcanoes with Holocene activity, of which 60 were further assumed to have been active during historical time.[12]

Local setting

Taapaca is part of the

Austral Volcanic Zone is one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes; these volcanic belts are separated by areas where no recent volcanism has occurred.[15]

The Central Volcanic Zone has about 44 active volcanoes and several other caldera/ignimbrite and volcanic field centres. Older volcanoes are often well preserved owing to the dry climate.[12] This volcanic zone features the highest volcanoes in the world, which reach elevations of 5,000–7,000 metres (16,000–23,000 ft) here.[15] The largest historical eruption in the Central Volcanic Zone occurred at Huaynaputina in 1600 and Lascar is the most active volcano in the region; otherwise volcanic activity is poorly recorded as most edifices are remote from human habitation.[12]

Taapaca is located on the western margin of the

Parinacota lie to the east of Taapaca.[18] The area of the volcano is subject to contractional tectonics,[19] with a major thrust fault passing close by,[20] but their relationship to Taapaca's volcanism is not clear.[19]

Volcano

A town within a valley, with two snow-covered summits rising above
Taapaca rises above Putre

Taapaca reaches a height of 5,860 metres (19,230 ft)

andesitic stratovolcano is also present.[2] The total volume of the edifice is about 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi). Volcanic material covers a surface of 250 square kilometres (97 sq mi).[7]

Just north of the summit, a valley begins and curves clockwise until it opens southwestward onto the flanks of the volcano, and is bordered on the site opposed to the summit by an equally clockwise trending ridge. This valley is drained by the Quebrada Pacollo stream.[23] The main summit is formed by a Holocene dome, with a late Pleistocene dome (known as the Socapave unit) just west of the main summit.[24]

Taapaca is usually covered by

Rio Lauca watershed to the east.[30] Southwest of Taapaca lies Putre, the main town of the northern Altiplano of Chile.[2]

Composition

Taapaca is mostly formed by

calc-alkaline suite of magmas.[32]

orthopyroxene,[16] hornblende,[34] magnetite and hematite, plagioclase,[32] quartz,[33] sanidine[16] which forms characteristic large crystals,[34] and titanite. Dacitic rocks contain mafic inclusions,[33] and such inclusions become increasingly common the younger the rocks they are embedded in are.[35]

The presence of mafic inclusions indicates that magma mixing occurs at Taapaca, with renewed eruptive episodes having been triggered by the injection of new andesitic magma into preexisting dacitic

cumulates; then the resulting mixture interacts with rhyodacite melts[40] derived from Proterozoic crustal material.[41] The initial melt contributes most of the material in mafic inclusions and the rhyodacite contributes most of the dacite material.[40]

The principal magma basin appears to be located at 15–20 kilometres (9.3–12.4 mi) depth, although some petrological traits of the erupted rocks indicate a secondary area of petrogenesis at 5–12 kilometres (3.1–7.5 mi) of depth.[17] Fractional crystallization and partial melting are involved in the formation of Taapaca magmas.[32]

Crustal assimilation at depths of more than 40 kilometres (25 mi) was involved in the formation of the dacitic magma and contributes about 18%[42] of the mass of the dacites.[43] Taapaca is constructed on a fairly thick crust and rising magma, and thus undergoes substantial interaction with the crust, meaning that crustal contamination is important in the genesis of Taapaca's magmas.[44] This magma is then transported to shallower levels, where it crystallizes.[45]

Brown, barren hills with two snow-covered mountains rising above them
The landscape in the region; Taapaca is the two snow-covered mountains

Climate and biology

Taapaca lies in a region of tropical alpine climate, with large diurnal temperature fluctuations and

arid,[46] so vegetation is not widespread.[47]

On the southern side of Taapaca, vegetation consists mostly of

bofedales.[49] Woodlands were once more common in the region.[50]

Fauna encountered in the region includes birds,

rodents, which are fairly common.[51] Much of the area is protected by the Lauca National Park, which includes Taapaca.[46]

Eruptive activity

Taapaca was originally considered to have been active for the last 1.5 million years

subplinian eruption has occurred on Taapaca, and tephra fallout deposits are not widespread.[22] Eruptive activity has moved 4–5 kilometres (2.5–3.1 mi) south-southwestward over the history of Taapaca,[34] with activity centred at the top of the edifice.[35]

Late Pleistocene to Holocene activity consisted of discrete episodes lasting about 10,000 years and separated by tens of thousands of years with no recognized activity. Aside from actual

eruptions, various types of edifice collapse are recorded at Taapaca including sector collapses of segments of the volcano and mass failure of individual domes, which generated block-and-ash flows.[14]

Phases

The oldest stage consists of Plio-Pleistocene

lava flows, which crop out in two sites on the northern flank and are heavily eroded and partly buried by later volcanic stages.[16] This stage of the edifice most likely consisted of a broad stratovolcano.[35]

Subsequently, between 1.5 and 0.5 million years ago,

hydrothermal alteration has occurred on the northern flank and has degraded the flow forms there. On the northern and northwestern flank, block-and-ash flows up to 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) long and with thicknesses of 20 metres (66 ft), down to less than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) thick farther away from the volcano, have covered a surface of 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi). They often have lahars up to 5 metres (16 ft) thick cropping out in their distal regions. At this time, Taapaca likely was a large stratovolcano[53] consisting of steep lava domes.[31]

The third stage featured volcanic activity similar to the second stage, with its products covering 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) especially in the central, eastern and southwestern parts of the edifice.

glacial erosion, which together with later sector collapses resulted in the removal of much of Taapaca's edifice and the exposure of the core of the volcano.[31]

The fourth stage spans the Pleistocene and Holocene and commenced with the emplacement of the Churilinco debris avalanche, which covers a surface of 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).

cryptodome inside the volcano,[52] and Putre is constructed on the avalanche deposit as well as on Tajane, Socapave and Holocene pyroclastic flows.[23] A pyroclastic eruption occurred, filling in gaps in the Socapave debris avalanche deposit and emplacing more material atop the southern fan of the Tajane unit.[56]

While Taapaca was once considered an

BCE ± 50 years.[3] Taapaca was reported in the early 20th century to be fumarolically active,[59] but there are no recorded historical eruptions and present day activity is reflected only by hot springs.[26]

Threats and preparedness

View down a road in Putre

Most of the volcanoes in northern Chile are far from towns and inhabited areas and thus their activity does not create significant human hazards,[23] but Taapaca is an exception:[60] Putre, the major local population centre,[34] is constructed on pyroclastic deposits from Taapaca, facing a threat from future eruptions. A highway (Chile Route 11[23] between La Paz and Arica[61]) linking Bolivia with the Pacific Ocean is also in range[7] on the southern flank, while the road to Visviri in Peru runs along the southwestern and western flanks.[18] Additional areas within range of Taapaca are the towns of Socoroma and Zapahuira, as well as the Oruro Department in Bolivia.[26] The danger is accentuated by the fact that Holocene activity has affected mainly the southwestern flank, where Putre is located. The average time between eruptions at Taapaca is about 450 years.[62]

Future activity at Taapaca could result in further sector collapses when magma is injected into the edifice and deforms it, to the point that the volcano becomes unstable. Likewise, if lava domes are extruded onto the volcano they could generate block and ash flows as well as both primary and secondary pyroclastic flows.[22] Eruptions between April and November (when the volcano is covered by snow) might generate lahars, as could rainfall during the wet season between December and March; the latter type of lahar happens frequently on present-day Taapaca owing to the steep slopes of the volcano, although it usually results solely in road damage.[62]

The Chilean

lava bomb falls, pyroclastic flows and tephra fallout.[23]

Religion and mining

Inkan people for rain rituals. The figurine was encountered within an outline made of rocks; further Inkan ruins were discovered 200 metres (660 ft) away from the summit on the northwest ridge.[63] The figurine was probably emplaced to obtain a supply of water, since the Inkans believed that mountains controlled weather and thus the fertility of animals and plants.[25] Taapaca was an Inkan mountain sanctuary,[64] and the mountain is still said to protect the community of Putre.[65]

Taapaca has deposits of sulfur in its summit area. Starting in the 1930s the Empresa Azufrera Taapaca ("Taapaca Sulfur Company") active in Putre mined this sulfur on Taapaca,[66] and Taapaca's crater became the site of the Cánepa and Cía mining camp.[67] This mining activity employed a significant number of the people in Putre.[68]

See also

References

  1. ^
    SERNAGEOMIN. Archived from the original
    on December 15, 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Taapaca". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 21 November 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  3. ^ a b c Eruptive History, Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  4. ^ "Diccionario Bilingüe, Castellano – Aymara, Para: Tercera Edición". Félix Layme Pairumani. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2015. see: Águila de dos cabezas
  5. ^ a b Mamani, Manuel M. (June 1984). "Preliminar de toponimos mas comunes primera region de tarapaca". University of Florida Digital Collections (in Spanish). Arica: University of Tarapacá. p. 10. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  6. ^ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa (2007). Diccionario Bilingüe: Iskay simipi yuyayk’anch: Quechua – Castellano / Castellano – Quechua (PDF). La Paz, Bolivia: futatraw.ourproject.org.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Clavero et al. 2004, p. 603.
  8. ISSN 0717-6643
    .
  9. ISSN 1548-1492
    .
  10. ^ Danyau, Manuel Schilling; Toro Toro, Karin (April 2011). "Actas del I Simposio de Geoparques y Geoturismo en Chile" (PDF) (in Spanish). p. 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 11, 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  11. ^ "Cerro de Taapacá". difrol.gob.cl (in Spanish). Dirección Nacional de Fronteras y Límites del Estado de Chile. Archived from the original on 2018-05-30. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  12. ^
    ISSN 0716-0208
    .
  13. ^ a b Wörner et al. 1994, p. 80.
  14. ^ a b Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 292.
  15. ^ a b Wörner et al. 1994, p. 79.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i Clavero et al. 2004, p. 605.
  17. ^ a b c d Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 795.
  18. ^ a b c Clavero et al. 2004, p. 604.
  19. ^
    doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.04.008
    .
  20. ISSN 2156-2202
    .
  21. ^ a b Jenny & Kammer 1996, p. 41.
  22. ^ a b c d Clavero et al. 2004, p. 616.
  23. ^
    SERNAGEOMIN. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  24. ^ Photo Gallery, Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  25. ^ a b c Reinhard 2002, p. 87.
  26. ^
    SERNAGEOMIN. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
  27. S2CID 187666121
    .
  28. ^ Jenny & Kammer 1996, p. 44.
  29. ^ Concha 1966, p. 76.
  30. ^ Jeria, Julio Sandoval (2003). "El Riego En Chile" (PDF). doh.gov.cl (in Spanish). Dirección de Obras Hidráulicas. p. 25. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
  31. ^ a b c d e f Clavero et al. 2004, p. 614.
  32. ^ a b c d Polanco et al. 2009, p. 2.
  33. ^ a b c d Clavero et al. 2004, p. 607.
  34. ^
    ISSN 0717-7305. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on June 29, 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  35. ^ a b c Higgins 2011, p. 711.
  36. ^ Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 293.
  37. ^ Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 299.
  38. ^ Higgins 2011, p. 721.
  39. ^ Polanco et al. 2009, p. 3.
  40. ^ a b Blum-Oeste & Wörner 2016, p. 435.
  41. ^ Blum-Oeste & Wörner 2016, p. 436.
  42. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 797.
  43. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 796.
  44. ^ Polanco et al. 2009, p. 1.
  45. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 798.
  46. ^ a b c d e Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 262.
  47. ^ a b c Concha 1966, p. 58.
  48. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 263.
  49. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 265.
  50. ^ Concha 1966, p. 59.
  51. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 266.
  52. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 615.
  53. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 608.
  54. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 609.
  55. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 610.
  56. ^ Clavero et al. 2004, p. 612.
  57. ^ Clavero et al. 2004, p. 613.
  58. ^ Higgins 2011, p. 710.
  59. ^ Map of Hispanic America publication. American Geographical Society of New York. 1922. p. 48. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
  60. S2CID 240470454
    .
  61. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 269.
  62. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 617.
  63. ^ Reinhard 2002, p. 85.
  64. ISBN 978-0826353085
    . Retrieved 21 November 2017.
  65. ISBN 978-0817317911
    .
  66. ISSN 0718-1043
    .
  67. ^ Concha 1966, p. 66.
  68. ^ Concha 1966, p. 64.

Sources

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taapaca&oldid=1187890062"