Tajikistan
Republic of Tajikistan | |
---|---|
Motto: Истиқлол, Озодӣ, Ватан (Tajik) Istiqlol, Ozodí, Vatan "Independence, Freedom, Homeland" | |
Anthem: Суруди Миллӣ (Tajik) | |
Religion |
|
presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship[7] | |
Emomali Rahmon | |
Kokhir Rasulzoda | |
Legislature | Supreme Assembly |
National Assembly | |
Assembly of Representatives | |
Formation | |
5 December 1929 | |
24 August 1990 | |
31 August 1991 | |
9 September 1991 | |
26 December 1991 | |
+992 | |
ISO 3166 code | TJ |
Internet TLD | .tj |
|
Tajikistan,
The territory was previously home to cultures of the
On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating. A civil war was fought after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led by Emomali Rahmon since 1994, who heads an authoritarian regime and whose human rights record has been criticised.[18][19]
Tajikistan is a
Etymology
The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the
While the
Regarding Tajiks, the Encyclopædia Britannica states:
The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[29]
History
Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[32]
The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most, if not all, of Tajikistan, was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[24] Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, parts of Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the Hindu Kambojas tribe[33][34] before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire.[35] After the region's conquest by
The
Samanid Empire
The
In the 13th century, the
Bukharan rule
What later is Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire's collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century and during the 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire) began to conquer parts of the region.[45]
Imperial Russia
Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire's conquest of Central Asia during the 19th century's Imperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).[46]
During the 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. While the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian, the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian.[47] Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I. While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in locations in Tajikistan. [48]
Soviet period
After the
In 1924, the
2 rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.[53] Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.[53] Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[54] Bobojon Ghafurov, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era.[55]
Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during
Independence
In February 1990, riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment.[49] The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms. Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence of the republic. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest.[49]
Following independence, the nation fell into
Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the
In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September,[73] and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers,[74] followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead. The country's Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010.[75] Fighting erupted in July 2012.[76] In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan.[77]
In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security underwent a setback when Colonel
In 2021, following the
In September 2022 armed clashes, including the use of artillery, erupted along most of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[81]
Politics
After independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war. Factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances of U.S. or Turkish involvement. Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border.[82] All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and the Islamist-led opposition, a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999.[83]
"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[84]
The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment. Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose 4 seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a majority. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards."[85][86] The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect the will of the Tajik people.[85][86]
The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism, which is evident in bordering Afghanistan.[87][88]
The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party. 4 remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.[84]
Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, and independent press outlets remain restricted, as does an amount of web content.
In the 2020
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter to
In October 2020, President Emomali Rahmon was re-elected for another seven-year term with 90% of the vote, following a largely ceremonial election.[93]
In April 2021, a
In July 2021, Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) of ex-Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighboring Afghanistan.[96] The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country, causing over 1,000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighboring Tajikistan after Taliban insurgents took control of parts of Afghanistan.[97]
Geography
Tajikistan is
Mountain | Height | Location | ||
Ismoil Somoni Peak (highest) | 7,495 m | 24,590 ft | North-western edge of GBAO), south of the Kyrgyz border
| |
Ibn Sina Peak (Lenin Peak )
|
7,134 m | 23,537 ft | Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range, north-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak | |
Peak Korzhenevskaya
|
7,105 m | 23,310 ft | North of Muksu River
| |
Revolution Peak )
|
6,974 m | 22,881 ft | Central Gorno-Badakhshan, south-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak | |
Academy of Sciences Range | 6,785 m | 22,260 ft | North-western Gorno-Badakhshan, stretches in the north–south direction | |
Karl Marx Peak | 6,726 m | 22,067 ft | Karakoram Range
| |
Garmo Peak
|
6,595 m | 21,637 ft | Northwestern Gorno-Badakhshan. | |
Mayakovskiy Peak
|
6,096 m | 20,000 ft | Extreme south-west of GBAO , near the border to Afghanistan.
| |
Concord Peak | 5,469 m | 17,943 ft | Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range
| |
Kyzylart Pass | 4,280 m | 14,042 ft | Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range |
The
Administrative divisions
Tajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions. These are the provinces (
Division | ISO 3166-2 | Map No | Capital | Area (km2)[98] | Pop. (2019)[99] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sughd
|
TJ-SU | 1 | Khujand | 25,400 | 2,658,400 |
Region of Republican Subordination
|
TJ-RR | 2 | Dushanbe | 28,600 | 2,122,000 |
Khatlon
|
TJ-KT | 3 | Bokhtar | 24,800 | 3,274,900 |
Gorno-Badakhshan
|
TJ-GB | 4 | Khorugh |
64,200 | 226,900 |
Dushanbe | Dushanbe | 124.6 | 846,400 |
Biodiversity
Tajikistan contains 5 terrestrial ecoregions:
Economy
In 2019, nearly 29% of Tajikistan's GDP came from
The malnutrition rate in Tajikistan will reach 30% in 2023 according to the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP). As in the rest of Central Asia, soils are deteriorating and water resources are diminishing, particularly as a result of climate change.[106]
Tajikistan's economy grew after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000–2007 according to the World Bank data. This "improved" Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely
Tajikistan's rivers, such as the
In 2014 Tajikistan was the world's most remittance-dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49% of GDP and expected to fall by 40% in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation.[118] Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in the Russian Federation, have become the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people[119] and with the 2014–2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank has predicted numbers of Tajik men will return home and face "few" economic prospects.[118]
According to some estimates about 47% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 per day.[106][120] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. In 2010, remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated $2.1 billion US dollars, an increase from 2009. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without "substantial and protracted" recourse to aid, and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labour.[121] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played a role as 1 of the drivers of Tajikistan's economic growth during the past years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped reduce poverty.[122]
Drug trafficking is an illegal source of income in Tajikistan
Besides Russia, China is one of the economic and trade partners of Dushanbe. Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative.[129]
Transportation
As a landlocked country, Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads, air, and rail. In years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries via
Rail
The
Air
In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports, 18 of which had paved runways, of which 2 had runways longer than 3,000 meters.[126]
Roads
The total length of roads in the country is 27,800 kilometres. Automobiles account for more than 90% of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80% of domestic freight transportation.[133]
In 2004 the Tajik–Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built, improving the country's access to South Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[134]
As of 2014[update] highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have been completed. Projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe – Chanak (Uzbek border), Dushanbe – Kulma (Chinese border), and Kurgan-Tube – Nizhny Pyanj (Afghan border) highways, and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes of Anzob, Shakhristan, Shar-Shar[135] and Chormaghzak.[136] These were supported by international donor countries.[133][137]
Demographics
Year | Million |
---|---|
1926 | 0.83 |
1950 | 1.5 |
2000 | 6.2 |
2021 | 9.8 |
In 2021, Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 9,749,625 as per the
In 1989, ethnic
The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, and in northern and western Afghanistan,[145] and there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a minority in Uzbekistan.[146] More than 3 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021.[147]
Languages
The two official languages of Tajikistan are Tajik as the state language and Russian as the interethnic language, as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution: "The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik. Russian shall be the language of international communication."[148]
The state (national) language (Tajik: забони давлатӣ, Russian: государственный язык) of the Republic of Tajikistan is Tajik, which is written in the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet. Linguists recognise the fact that the Tajik language is a variant of the Persian language (or Farsi). Therefore, Tajik speakers have no problems communicating with Persian speakers from Iran and Dari speakers from Afghanistan. Millions of native Tajik speakers live in neighboring Uzbekistan and in Russia.[149]
According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan,[148] Russian is recognized as the second official language of Tajikistan; the official language of inter-ethnic communication (Russian: язык межнационального общения; Tajik: забони муоширати байни миллатҳо) in the country.[150][151]
Approximately 90% of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at levels. The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars as Tajik(istani) Russian[152] and it shares some similarities with Uzbek(istani) Russian, such as morphological differences and the lexical differences like the use of words урюк[153] for a wild apricot or кислушка for rhubarb.[154]
Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in address to unfamiliar people and acquaintances.[155]
Tajikistani Russian | Standard Russian | English translation |
---|---|---|
апа | старшая сестра | older sister |
ака | старший брат | older brother |
хола | тетя | aunt |
янга | жена брата, невестка | daughter-in-law; sister-in-law |
The "highly educated" part of the population of Tajikistan, and the intelligentsia, prefer to speak Russian and Persian, the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the "Iranian style".[156][150][151]
Native Uzbek speakers live in the north and west of Tajikistan. In fourth place (after Tajik, Russian and Uzbek) by number of native speakers are
Employment
In 2009 nearly 1 million Tajiks worked abroad (mainly in Russia).[158] More than 70% of the female population lives in traditional villages.[159]
Religion
Tajikistan considers itself a
Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC. In the 1940s, the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30,000 people. Most were Persian-speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era. The Jewish population later is estimated at less than 500, about half of whom live in Dushanbe.[167]
There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. The
By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in fines and closure of a place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[169] People under the age of 18 are barred from public religious practice.[170]
As of January 2016, as part of an "anti-radicalisation campaign", police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13,000 men and shut down 160 shops selling the hijab. Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed "alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture", and "to preserve secular traditions".[171]
Approximately 1.6% of the population in Tajikistan is
Health
The state's Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[173] Public expenditure on health was at 1% of the GDP in 2004.[174]
Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020.[175] The infant mortality rate was approximately 30.42 deaths per 1,000 children in 2018.[176] In 2014, there were 2.1 physicians per 1,000 people, higher than any other low-income country after North Korea.[177]
Tajikistan has experienced a decrease in number of per capita hospital beds following the dissolution of the USSR (since 1992), while the number still remains relatively at 4.8 beds per 1,000 people, above the world average of 2.7.[178]
According to World Bank, 96% of births are attended by skilled health staff, a figure which has risen from 66.6% in 1999.[179]
In 2010 the country experienced an outbreak of polio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control.[180]
In the summer of 2021 coronavirus ravaged the country, and the Tajik president's sister reportedly died in a hospital of COVID-19. According to local media, the president's sister's sons physically assaulted the health minister and a senior doctor.[181]
Education
Despite its poverty, Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education, with an estimated 99.8%[182] of the population having the ability to read and write.[126]
Public education in Tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education and the government planned to implement a 12-year system in 2016.
Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005–2012 and fluctuated from 3.5% to 4.1% of
According to a UNICEF-supported survey, about 25% of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias,[187] while literacy is "generally high" in Tajikistan.[174] Estimates of out of school children range from 4.6% to 19.4% with the majority being girls.[184]
In September 2017, the University of Central Asia launched its second campus in Khorog, Tajikistan, offering majors in Earth & Environmental Sciences and Economics.[188] Tajikistan was ranked 111rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[189][190]
Science on the territory of Tajikistan achieved "success" in the Middle Ages, and scientific organizations were created in the Soviet period. During the period of independence, the scientific sphere experienced a "crisis": the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994-2011 from 193 to 5.[191] A contribution to science is made by universities, where in 2011 6707 researchers worked, of which 2450 had academic degrees.[192]
Culture
The
The
Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House, which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder, Colorado.[195]
In the country, especially among women from the indigenous population, the wearing traditional national clothing is preserved. The seamstresses and embroiderers of regions of Tajikistan use factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women's clothing. The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas, passing the knowledge down from one generation to the next.[196]
Sport
The national sport of Tajikistan is gushtigiri, a form of wrestling.[197][198]
Another sport is buzkashi, a game played on horseback, like polo. Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport. The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat, ride clear of the other players, get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle. It is played at Nowruz celebrations.[199]
The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan. It was granted affiliate membership of the Asian Cricket Council in the same year.[200]
In 2008, rugby union was officially registered with the Ministry of Justice, and there are 3 men's clubs.[201]
Tajikistan has 1 ski resort, called Safed Dara (formerly Takob), near the town of Varzob.[203]
See also
- 2006 Tajikistan earthquake
- Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan
- Central Asian Union
- Dushanbe
- Foreign relations of Tajikistan
- Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province
- Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston
- List of cities in Tajikistan
- LGBT rights in Tajikistan
- Mount Imeon
- Outline of Tajikistan
- Russian Turkistan
- Mass media in Tajikistan
- Yaghnob Valley
- Tajikistani Civil War
Notes
- romanized: Tojikiston, pronounced [tʰɔːdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔːn]; Russian: Таджикистан, romanized: Tadzhikistan, pronounced [tədʐɨkʲɪˈstan]
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This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan : country studies. Federal Research Division.
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Further reading
- Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh, Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 3rd. ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
- Shirin Akiner, Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare, eds., Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence, Routledge, 1998.
- Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
- Robert Middleton, Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser, Tajikistan and the High Pamirs, Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2008 (ISBN 978-9-622177-73-4).
- Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR (1990) excerpt
- Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer, Tajikistan: A Political and Social History, Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2013.
- Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (2017)
- Smith, Graham, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1995)
- Monica Whitlock, Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
- Poopak NikTalab. Sarve Samarghand (Cedar of Samarkand), continuous interpretation of Rudaki's poems, Tehran 2020, Faradid Publications {Introduction}
- Sharma, Raj Kumar, "Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan", New Delhi, Vij Books, 2018.
External links
- Tajikistan at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Tajikistan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Tajikistan at Curlie
- Tajikistan profile from the BBC News
- Wikimedia Atlas of Tajikistan
- Key Development Forecasts for Tajikistan from International Futures
- Flight Information Region In Tajikistan