Tai languages
Tai | |
---|---|
Zhuang–Tai, Daic | |
Geographic distribution | Southern Be–Tai?
|
Proto-language | Proto-Tai |
Subdivisions |
|
ISO 639-2 / 5 | tai |
Glottolog | daic1237 |
Distribution of Tai languages: Northern Tai / Northern Zhuang
Central Tai / Southern Zhuang
Southwestern Tai / Thai |
The Tai, Zhuang–Tai, provinces.
Name
Cognates with the name Tai (Thai, Dai, etc.) are used by speakers of many Tai languages. The term Tai is now well-established as the generic name in English. In his book The Tai-Kadai Languages, Anthony Diller claims that Lao scholars he has met are not pleased with Lao being regarded as a Tai language.[4] For some, Thai should instead be considered a member of the Lao language family.[4] One or more Ancient Chinese characters for 'Lao' may be cited in support of this alternative appellation.[4] Some scholars, including Benedict (1975), have used Thai to refer to a wider (Tai) grouping and one sees designations like proto-Thai and Austro-Thai in earlier works.[4] In the institutional context in Thailand, and occasionally elsewhere, sometimes Tai (and its corresponding Thai-script spelling, without a final -y symbol) is used to indicate varieties in the language family not spoken in Thailand or spoken there only as the result of recent immigration.[4] In this usage, Thai would not then be considered a Tai language.[4] On the other hand, Gedney, Li and others have preferred to call the standard language of Thailand Siamese rather than Thai, perhaps to reduce potential Thai/Tai confusion, especially among English speakers not comfortable with making a word initial unaspirated voiceless sound for Tai, which in any event might sound artificial or arcane to outsiders.
According to Michel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Tai/Thai (or Tay/Thay) would have evolved from the etymon *k(ə)ri: 'human being' through the following chain: kəri: > kəli: > kədi:/kədaj (-l- > -d- shift in tense sesquisyllables and probable diphthongization of -i: > -aj).[5][6] This in turn changed to di:/daj (presyllabic truncation and probable diphthongization -i: > -aj). And then to *dajA (Proto-Southwestern Tai) > tʰajA2 (in Siamese and Lao) or > tajA2 (in the other Southwestern and Central Tai languages by Li Fangkuei). Michel Ferlus' work is based on some simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part by William H. Baxter (1992).[6]
The Central Tai languages are called Zhuang in China and Tay and Nung in Vietnam.
History
Citing the fact that both the Zhuang and Thai peoples have the same
Connection to ancient Yue language(s)
The Tai languages descend from
Internal classification
Haudricourt (1956)
Haudricourt emphasizes the specificity of Dioi (Zhuang) and proposes to make a two-way distinction between the following two sets.[11] The original language names used in Haudricourt's (1956) are provided first; alternative names are given in parentheses.
- Tai
- Dioi group: Yei Zhuang, Yongbei Zhuang, Youjiang Zhuang, Bouyei (Buyi)
- Tai proper: Nung
Characteristics of the Dioi group pointed out by Haudricourt are
- r- corresponding to the lateral l- in the other Tai languages,[verification needed]
- divergent vowel system characteristics, e.g. 'tail' has an /a/ vowel in Tai proper, as against /ə̄/ in Bo-ai, /iə/ in Tianzhou, and /ɯə/ in Tianzhou and Wuming, and
- the lack of aspirated stops and affricates, which are found everywhere in Tai proper.
Li (1977)
Li Fang-Kuei divided Tai into three sister branches.
- Tai
Li's Northern group corresponds to Haudricourt's Dioi group, while his Central and Southwestern groups correspond to Haudricourt's Tai proper. The three last languages in Haudricourt's list of 'Tai proper' languages are
This classification scheme has long been accepted as standard in comparative Tai linguistics. However, Central Tai does not appear to be a
Gedney (1989)
Gedney (1989) considers Central and Southwestern Tai to form a subgroup, of which Northern Tai is a sister. The top-level branching is in agreement with Haudricourt (1956).
Luo (1997)
Luo Yongxian (1997) classifies the Tai languages as follows, introducing a fourth branch called Northwestern Tai that includes
- Tai
- Northern Tai
- Central Tai
- Southwestern Tai
- Northwestern Tai
Pittayaporn (2009)
Overview
Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2009) classifies the Tai languages based on clusters of shared innovations (which, individually, may be associated with more than one branch) (Pittayaporn 2009:298). In Pittayaporn's preliminary classification system of the Tai languages, Central Tai is considered to be paraphyletic and is split up into multiple branches, with the Zhuang varieties of Chongzuo in southwestern Guangxi (especially in the Zuo River valley at the border to Vietnam) having the most internal diversity. The Southwestern Tai and Northern Tai branches remain intact as in Li Fang-Kuei's 1977 classification system, and several of the Southern Zhuang languages allocated ISO codes are considered to be paraphyletic. The classification is as follows.[13]
- Tai
- D: Northern Tai
- I: Qinzhou Zhuang (Yongnan Zhuang of Qinzhou)
- J
- M: Wuming Zhuang, Yongnan Zhuang, Long'an Zhuang, Fusui
- N: Core Yay, Youjiang Zhuangand others
- I:
- C: Caolan(Vietnam)
- B: Ningming Zhuang (Zuojiang Zhuang of Ningming)
- A
- F: Lungchow Zhuang, Leiping Zhuang
- E
- H: Lungming Zhuang, Daxin Zhuang
- G
- L (Nung):
- K
- P (Tay): Cao Bằng, Dai Zhuangof Wenma (文麻)
- O
- R: Sapa (Vietnam)
- Q: Southwestern Tai (Laos, Thailand, Burma)
- P (Tay):
- D: Northern Tai
Sound changes
The following phonological shifts occurred in the Q (Southwestern), N (Northern), B (Ningming), and C (Chongzuo) subgroups (Pittayaporn 2009:300–301).
Proto-Tai | Subgroup Q[b] | Subgroup N[c] | Subgroup B | Subgroup C |
---|---|---|---|---|
*ɤj, *ɤw, *ɤɰ | *aj, *aw, *aɰ | *i:, *u:, *ɯ: | *i:, *u:, *ɯ: | – |
*ɯj, *ɯw | *iː, *uː[d] | *aj, *aw[e] | *iː, *uː | – |
*we, *wo | *eː, *oː | *iː, *uː | *eː, *oː[f] | *eː, *oː[g] |
*ɟm̩.r- | *br- | *ɟr- | – | *ɟr- |
*k.t- | – | *tr- | – | *tr- |
*ɤn, *ɤt, *ɤc | – | *an, *at, *ac[h] | – | – |
Furthermore, the following shifts occurred at various nodes leading up to node Q.
- E: *p.t- > *p.r-; *ɯm > *ɤm
- G: *k.r- > *qr-
- K: *eː, *oː > *ɛː, *ɔː
- O: *ɤn > *on
- Q: *kr- > *ʰr-
Edmondson (2013)
- Tai
- Yay, Po-Ai, Wuming Zhuang, Mashan Zhuang
-
- Central Tai
- core NingmingZhuang
- Nung: Western Nung, Nung Yang, Nung An, Thu Lao
- Cao Lan
- core
- Central Tai
Reconstruction
Proto-Tai has been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Pittayawat Pittayaporn in 2009.[15] Proto-Southwestern Tai has also been reconstructed in 1977 by Li Fang-Kuei and by Nanna L. Jonsson in 1991.[16]
Others have taken up specific area reconstructions, such as David Strecker's 1984 work regarding "Proto-Tai Personal Pronouns." Strecker's proposed system of personal pronouns in Proto-Tai involves "three numbers, three persons, an inclusive/exclusive distinction and an animate/non-animate distinction in the third person non-singular."[17][18]
Proto-Tai | Thai alphabet
| ||
1st | singular | *ku | กู |
dual (exclusive) | *pʰɯa | เผือ | |
plural (exclusive) | *tu | ตู | |
Incl. | dual (inclusive) | *ra | รา |
plural (inclusive) | *rau | เรา | |
2nd | singular | *mɯŋ | มึง |
dual | *kʰɯa | เขือ | |
plural | *su | สู | |
3rd | singular | *man | มัน |
dual | *kʰa | ขา | |
plural | *kʰau | เขา |
Comparison
Below is comparative table of Tai languages.
English | Proto-Tai[19] | Thai | Lao | Northern Thai | Shan | Tai Lü
|
Standard Zhuang | Ahom |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wind | *dluom | /lōm/ | /lóm/ | /lōm/ | /lóm/ | /lôm/ | /ɣum˧˩/ | lum |
town | *mɯəŋA | /mɯ̄aŋ/ | /mɯ́aŋ/ | /mɯ̄aŋ/ | /mɤ́ŋ/ | /mɤ̂ŋ/ | /mɯŋ˧/ | mvng |
earth | *ɗin | /dīn/ | /dìn/ | /dīn/ | /lǐn/ | /dín/ | /dei˧/ | nin |
fire | *wɤjA | /fāj/ | /fáj/ | /fāj/ | /pʰáj/ or /fáj/ | /fâj/ | /fei˧˩/ | phai |
heart | *cɤɰA | /hǔa tɕāj/ | /hǔa tɕàj/ | /hǔa tɕǎj/ | /hǒ tsǎɰ/ | /hó tɕáj/ | /sim/ | chau |
water | *C.namC | /náːm/ | /nâm/ | /nám/ | /nâm/ | /nà̄m/ | /ɣaem˦˨/ | nam |
Writing systems
Many Southwestern Tai languages are written using Brahmi-derived alphabets. Zhuang languages are traditionally written with Chinese characters called Sawndip, and now officially written with a romanized alphabet, though the traditional writing system is still in use to this day.
- Thai script [1]
- Lao script [2]
- Sawndip [3]
- Shan script [4]
- Ahom script [5]
- Tai Viet script [6]
- Tai Le script [7]
- New Tai Lue alphabet [8]
- Tai Tham script [9]
See also
- Miscellaneous Tai languages
- Zomia (region)
Notes
- ^ A1 designates a tone.
- ^ Unless indicated otherwise, all phonological shifts occurred at the primary level (node A).
- ^ Unless indicated otherwise, all phonological shifts occurred at the primary level (node D).
- ^ Also, the *ɯːk > *uːk shift occurred at node A.
- ^ Innovation at node N
- ^ For node B, the affected Proto-Tai syllable was *weː, *woː.
- ^ For node C, the affected Proto-Tai syllable was *weː, *woː.
- ^ Innovation at node J
References
- ^ Diller, 2008. The Tai–Kadai Languages, p. 7.
- from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- ^ "The Zhuang ethnic minority". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China.
- ^ ISBN 1135791163.
- ^ Ferlus, Michel (2009). Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia. 42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Nov 2009, Chiang Mai, Thailand. 2009, p.3.
- ^ a b Pain, Frédéric (2008). An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai. Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 128, No. 4 (Oct. – Dec., 2008), p.646.
- ISBN 9789748130064. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 July 2011.
- ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No 20: 47–64.
- ^ Edmondson 2007, p. 16.
- . Retrieved 23 May 2023.
- ^ Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1956. De la restitution des initiales dans les langues monosyllabiques : le problème du thai commun. Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 52. 307–322.
- ^ Luo, Yongxian. (1997). The subgroup structure of the Tai Languages: a historical-comparative study. Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, (12), p. 232.
- ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2009. The Phonology of Proto-Tai. PhD dissertation. Department of Linguistics, Cornell University.
- ^ Edmondson, Jerold A. 2013. Tai subgrouping using phylogenetic estimation. Presented at the 46th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (ICSTLL 46), Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States, 7–10 August 2013 (Session: Tai-Kadai Workshop).
- ^ Jonsson, Nanna L. (1991) Proto Southwestern Tai. PhD dissertation, available from UMI and SEAlang.net on http://sealang.net/crcl/proto/
- ^ "ABVD: Proto-Southwestern Tai". Archived from the original on 13 April 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
- S2CID 99034913.
- ^ https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6af02aa7-c444-481c-8d1b-ac0c25346f20/content
- ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (August 2009). "THE PHONOLOGY OF PROTO-TAI". Retrieved 20 December 2023.
Further reading
- Brown, J. Marvin. From Ancient Thai to Modern Dialects. Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand, 1965.
- Chamberlain, James R. A New Look at the Classification of the Tai Languages. [s.l: s.n, 1972.
- Conference on Tai Phonetics and Phonology, Jimmy G. Harris, and Richard B. Noss. Tai Phonetics and Phonology. [Bangkok: Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 1972.
- Diffloth, Gérard. An Appraisal of Benedict's Views on Austroasiatic and Austro-Thai Relations. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 1976.
- Đoàn, Thiện Thuật. Tay-Nung Language in the North Vietnam. [Tokyo?]: Instttute [sic] for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1996.
- Gedney, William J. On the Thai Evidence for Austro-Thai. [S.l: s.n, 1976.
- Gedney, William J., and Robert J. Bickner. Selected Papers on Comparative Tai Studies. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 29. Ann Arbor, Mich., USA: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. ISBN 0-89148-037-4
- Gedney, William J., Carol J. Compton, and John F. Hartmann. Papers on Tai Languages, Linguistics, and Literatures: In Honor of William J. Gedney on His 77th Birthday. Monograph series on Southeast Asia. [De Kalb]: Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1992. ISBN 1-877979-16-3
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. (1995). William J. Gedney's central Tai dialects: glossaries, texts, and translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 43. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan ISBN 0-89148-075-7
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. William J. Gedney's the Yay Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 38. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. ISBN 0-89148-066-8
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. William J. Gedney's Southwestern Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 42. [Ann Arbor, Mich.]: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1994. ISBN 0-89148-074-9
- Hudak, Thomas John. William J. Gedney's The Tai Dialect of Lungming: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 39. [Ann Arbor]: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. ISBN 0-89148-067-6
- Li, Fang-kuei. 1977. Handbook of Comparative Tai. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʼi Press.
- Li, Fang-kuei. The Tai Dialect of Lungchow; Texts, Translations, and Glossary. Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1940.
- Østmoe, Arne. A Germanic–Tai Linguistic Puzzle. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 64. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1995.
- Sathāban Sūn Phāsā Qangkrit. Bibliography of Tai Language Studies. [Bangkok]: Indigenous Languages of Thailand Research Project, Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, 1977.
- Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
- Tingsabadh, Kalaya and Arthur S. Abramson. Essays in Tai Linguistics. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 2001. ISBN 974-347-222-3