Takfir

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with Takbir.

Part of a series on
Islamism
Fundamentals
Ideologies
Islamic fundamentalism
Concepts
Influences
Movements
Scholastic

Political

Militant

Key texts
Heads of state
Key ideologues
Criticism of Islamism
Related topics

 Islam portal

icon Politics portal

Takfir (

triliteral root k-f-r appear.[4]

Since according to the traditional interpretations of Islamic law (sharīʿa) the punishment for apostasy is the death penalty,[3] and potentially a cause of strife and violence within the Muslim community (Ummah),[5] an ill-founded takfir accusation was a major forbidden act (haram) in Islamic jurisprudence,[6] with one hadith declaring that one who wrongly declares a Muslim an unbeliever is himself not an apostate but rather committed minor shirk.[7] In the history of Islam, a sect originating in the 7th century CE known as the Kharijites carried out takfīr against both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims, and became the main source of insurrection against the early caliphates for centuries.[8] Traditionally, the only group authorized to declare another Muslim a kāfir are the scholars of Islam (Ulama), which affirm that all the prescribed legal precautions should be taken before declaring takfīr,[9] and that those who profess the Islamic faith should be exempt.[5]

Starting in the mid-to-late 20th century, some individuals and organizations in the

jahiliyah (a state of pre-Islamic ignorance) several centuries ago, having abandoned the use of sharīʿa law, without which (Qutb held) Islam cannot exist.[3][10] Qutb affirmed that since Muslim government leaders (along with being cruel and evil) were actually not Muslims but apostates preventing the revival of Islam, the use of "physical force" should be used to remove them.[3][10] This radical Islamist ideology, called "takfirism", has been widely held and applied by numerous Islamic extremists, terrorists, and jihadist organizations in the late 20th and early 21st-centuries, to varying degrees.[3][10][11]

Since the latter half of the 20th century, takfīr has also been used for "sanctioning violence against leaders of Islamic states"

Hasan al-Hudaybi (d. 1977) and Yusuf al-Qaradawi.[12]

Etymology and terminology

The Arabic terms kufr ("unbelief") and

post-Quranic period and was first done by the Khawarij," according to J. E. Campo.[15]

The act which precipitates takfīr is termed mukaffir. A Muslim who declares another Muslim to be an unbeliever or apostate is a takfīri ("excommunicational").[5] It is prohibited to do without court and 12 years of islamic studies.

Authority and conditions

Further information: Apostasy in Islam
Caricature of the Crimean Tatar educator and intellectual Ismail Gasprinsky (on the right), leader of the Jadid movement, depicted holding the newspaper Terjuman ("The Translator") and the textbook Khoja-i-Sübyan ("The Teacher of Children") in his hand. Two men, respectively Tatar and Azerbaijani Muslim clerics, are threatening him with takfīr and sharīʿah decrees (on the left). From the satirical magazine Molla Nasreddin, N. 17, 28 April 1908, Tbilisi (illustrator: Oskar Schmerling).

Legitimate authority and conditions that permit the issuance of takfīr are major points of contention among Muslim scholars. The declaration of takfīr typically applies to a judgement that an action or statement by the accused Muslim indicates his/her knowing abandonment of Islam. In many cases an Islamic court or a religious leader, an ʿālim must pronounce a fatwa (legal judgement) of takfīr against an individual or group.

The medieval Islamic scholar

judges (or Muslim vigilantes) of the accused being an apostate, traditionally leads to punishments of killing, confiscation of their property, and denial of Islamic burial.[17] Ulamas often raise objections by asking rhetorical questions of who holds the right to excommunicate others, on what religious criteria it should be based, and what level of specialized knowledge in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is required for the qualification of authority.[5]

Some Muslims consider takfīr to be a prerogative only of either Muhammad — who does that through divine revelation and is no longer alive to do it — or of a state which represents the collectivity of the Ummah (the Muslim community).[18]

An example given of the reluctance of Muslims to takfir is the refusal of authorities at

ISIL/ISIS/Daesh in 2015 despite that groups notorious takfir atrocities; and the refusal of "many mainstream Muslims" to takfir the Kharijites, despite this sects being "unanimously regarded as the arch-takfiris" by scholars.[19]

Examples of takfir

Examples of takfir spreading once takfir is accepted in a Muslim community include[

editorializing
]:

  • The Saudi Arabian fatwa website
    Salah al jamaa'ah (congregational prayer) and regarded the Muslims in that land"—the 19th century community on the Arabian peninsula who followed the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab – "as disbelievers".[Note 1] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhaab himself was noted for teachings whose "pivotal idea" was that "Muslims who disagreed with his definition of monotheism were not heretics, that is to say, misguided Muslims, but outside the pale of Islam altogether."[Note 2]
  • Islamist youth incarcerated for alleged extremism in Egypt in the mid-1960s agreed with the theory set forth in Sayyid Qutb's book Milestones that Islam was extinct since sharia law not being enforced in the "Muslim" world, and that the right response was to withdraw from "Muslim" society in preparation for the overthrow of the secular regime. However they disagreed over whether their detachment should be "total" (i.e. a low profile but not secret existence on the margins of society) or "spiritual" (i.e. kept secret from other Muslims until they were a stronger force). The groups mutually takfired each other and "refused to greet one another, and sometimes even came to blows".[Note 3]

Characteristics of apostasy in classical Islam

Traditionally, Islamic jurists did not formulate general rules for establishing unbelief, instead compiling sometimes lengthy lists of statements and actions which in their view were grounds for a takfir accusation.[22][Note 4] These could be wide-ranging and seemingly far removed from basic Islamic beliefs.

The manuals

Shafi'i school of jurisprudence (Fiqh),[24][25] and Madjma' al-Anhur by Hanafi scholar Shaykhzadeh (d. 1667)[26]
include

(From Reliance):

(a) bowing before sun, moon, objects of nature, idols, cross or any images symbolically representing God whether in mere contrariness, sarcastically or with conviction;
(b) intention to commit unbelief, even if one hesitates to do so;[24][25]
(c) speak words that imply unbelief such as "Allah is the third of three" or "I am Allah";[24][25]
(d) revile, question, wonder, doubt, mock or deny the existence of God or Prophet of Islam or that the Prophet was sent by God;[24][25]
(e) revile, deny, or mock any verse of the Quran, or the religion of Islam;[24][25]
(f) to deny the obligatory character of something considered obligatory by Ijma (consensus of Muslims);[24][25]
(g) believe that things in themselves or by their nature have cause independent of the will of God.[24][25]

(Selected characteristics from Madjma' al-anhur):

(a) conceive of Allah as a woman or child;[26]
(b) to declare that the Angel of Death sometimes picks the wrong people;[26]
(c) to assert the createdness of the Quran, to translate the Quran;[26]
(d) to ridicule Islamic scholars or address them in a derisive manner, to reject the validity of Shariah courts;[26]
(e) to pay respect to non-Muslims, to celebrate Nowruz the Iranian New Year.[26]

Other examples from legal treatises devoted exclusively to verbal expressions (but also actions) of disbelief (known as alfaz al-kufr) included:

  • "Whoever recites the Quran to the sound of a drum is an unbeliever (yakfuru)"
  • "Whoever says: 'I do not know why God mentioned this or that in the Quran' is an unbeliever (karfara)"
  • "Whoever deliberately prays in a direction other than Mecca (al-qibla), is an unbeliever"
  • "When someone returns from a scholarly gathering (majlis al-'il) and another one says: 'that man came back from church', that person is an unbeliever"
  • "If a woman curses a scholar husband, she is an unbeliever"[27]

Al-Ghazali held that apostasy occurs when a Muslim denies the essential dogmas: monotheism, Muhammad's prophecy, and the Last Judgment.[28] He devoted "chapters to dealing with takfir and the reasons for which one can be accused of unbelief," in his work Fayasl al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa.[29][30]

Exemptions and extenuating circumstances

On the other hand, there are a number of ways a Muslim may avoid being found guilty of apostasy.

Giving pause to takfir accusations is the principle of fiqh (in Shafiʿi and other madhhabs) that accusing or describing another devout Muslim of being an unbeliever is itself an act of apostasy,[31] based on the hadith where Muhammad is reported to have said: "If a man says to his brother, 'You are an infidel,' then one of them is right."[32]

In contrast to the manuals described above, Charles Adams and A. Kevin Reinhart state that some Islamic theologians maintain that Muslims may be guilty of error and wrongdoing without descending all the way to the level of kafir. For example, a Muslim denying a point of creed may be a hypocrite (

qiblah] cannot be a kāfir.[33]

Before the accused can be found guilty

Compensating for the numerous and potentially fatal possible transgressions mentioned above that had to be avoided were the requirements ("hurdles to jump through") for finding a Muslim guilty of apostasy. While not all Islamic scholars or schools of jurisprudence agree, some Shafi'i fiqh scholars—such as Nawawi and ibn Naqib al-Misri—state that to apply the apostasy code to a Muslim, the accused must:

(a) have understood and professed that "there is no God but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God" (shahada),
(b) know the shariah necessarily known by all Muslims,
(c) be of sound mind at the time of apostasy,
(d) have reached or passed puberty, and
(e) have consciously and deliberately rejected or consciously and deliberately intend to reject any part or all of Quran or of Islam (Sharia).[34][35][need quotation to verify]

Ja'fari fiqh set no such screening requirements; a Muslim's history has no bearing on when and on whom to apply the sharia code for apostasy.[37]

Still more requirements for convicting an alleged apostate are listed by other sources, including that the crime must be explained to them, and they must be given a chance to retract it, and that the accused must have been "aware of the "unilaterally and eternally binding nature" of accepting Islam", and been aware of the punishment for apostasy (or any other hadd crime) at the time of committing the crime of apostasy. (Asmi Wood)[38]

Judgement should be left to knowledgeable Muslims (according to Islam Question and Answer) not lay Muslims. [39]

Early religious schools

There are disputes among different early schools of religious thought as to what constitutes sufficient justification for declaring takfir:

Sunni Ashari

The orthodox

Sunni position is that sins generally do not prove that someone is not a Muslim, but denials of fundamental religious principles do. Thus a murderer, for instance, may still be a Muslim, but someone who denies that murder is a sin is a kafir if he is aware that murder is considered a sin in Islam.[citation needed] Ash'ari argued "that it is the belief in the heart that matters the most".[40] The founder of the Ashari school, Imam Al-Ash'ari[41] stated that "presumptuously declaring ... mortal sins, such as fornication or theft or the like, ... lawful and not acknowledging that it is forbidden," made the one declaring "an infidel".[41]

Khawarij

Kharijis or Kharijites "are unanimously regarded as the arch-takfiris" in Islamic history,[19] known for their takfir and assassination of rashidun caliph Ali after he agreed to arbitration with his rival,

Muawiyah I, to decide the succession to the Caliphate. (arbitration being a means for people to make decisions, while the victor in a battle was determined by God). Kharijites believed that Muslims had the duty to revolt against any ruler who deviated from their interpretation of Islam or failed to manage Muslim's affairs with justice and consultation[42] or committed a major sin.[43]

Murjites

Murjites (Murjiʾah: "Those Who Postpone") believed that no one who once professed Islam could be takfired, even if they committed mortal sins. Judgment on whether those who committed serious sins were Muslims or kafir should be "postponed" (irjāʾ), and left to God alone.[44][45] This theology promoted tolerance of Umayyads and converts to Islam who appeared half-hearted in their obedience.[46] It emerged as a theological school that was opposed to the

Kharijites on questions related to early controversies regarding sin and definitions of what is a true Muslim.[47][48]

As opposed to the Kharijites, Murjites believed revolt against a Muslim ruler could not be justified under any circumstances, and advocated passive resistance.[49]

Mu'tazilites

The

Zaidiyyahs) advocated what they saw as a middle way between Murjites and Khawarij, whereby who failed to sufficiently perform their obligations were demoted to sinners (fasiq), but not all the way to infidel.[50] On the other hand, "it has been argued" (according to Alam al-Dīn) that, "the general Mu'tazilite conception of īmān is the view that the acts of obedience are essential for belief and whoever neglects these acts is not a Believer".[51]

Takfir of Christians and Jews

Non-Muslims can also be takfired, according to Fayiz Salhab and Hussam S Timani, at least. An "example being" a hadith were Muhammad is quoted as saying

Turning the graves of prophets into places of worship is a "major kufr", and since an act of major kufr qualifies someone to be a kaffir, and since this was showing "iman outwardly" yet committed (major) kufr inwardly, they were guilty of turning their back on their religion for unbelief.[53]

History

Early Islam

Some Muslims (such as Muhammad

Caliph, Abu Bakr.[54]
In response to the refusal of certain Arab tribes to pay the alms-tax (zakat), he is reported to have said: "By God, I will fight anyone who differentiates between the prayer and the zakat. ... Revelation has been discontinued, the Shari'ah has been completed: will the religion be curtailed while I am alive. ... I will fight these tribes even if they refuse to give a halter. Poor-due (zakat) is a levy on wealth and, by God, I will fight him who differentiates between the prayer and poor-due."[55] Abu Bakr did not use the word kafir though.

secular democracy, and that the Taliban are a front for Pakistan
. Zarqawi tells Abu Mus'ab that he is accused of Takfir because of his views about the Muslims in Bosnia, Tajikistan, Chechnya, and Kashmir.

The group known as

Muawiyah I, to decide the succession to the Caliphate. They believed that "judgement belongs to God alone", so that for human beings to arbitrate peacefully rather than wage war was making a decision rightfully belonging to God. In contrast, the victor of a battle was determined by God.[57][58]

In the wars between the

Khawarijs, the latter's practice of takfir became the justification for their indiscriminate attacks on civilian Muslims; the more moderate Sunni view of takfir developed partly in response to this conflict. [citation needed
] In the Umayyad and early Abbasid periods (roughly 661–800 CE), authorities "appear" to have defended Islam against apostasy "mostly" with "intellectual debates".[59]

During the

Mu'tazilites, enemies of the Mu'tazila were considered heretics and disbelievers and were punished.[60] The Mihna lasted from 833 to 851 CE.[60]

In 922

al-Husayn ibn Mansour al-Hallaj was killed on account of blasphemy.[61]

The celebrated Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) preached against the excessive takfīr among theologians.[62]

Maliki scholar

Ibn Taymiyyah and Taj al-Din al-Subki (d.1355).[63]

In a study of 60 high-profile takfir cases in Egypt and Syria "tried before the qadis of the four Sunni schools of law" during

Sufis, Rafidi, Shi'a, reverts from Islam, "alleged blasphemers and sorcerers, rebels, political rivals and others, with charges often being trumped up."[64](Executions became more common and political during times of unrest.)[65]

Ibn Taymiyyah

14th century scholar

Sufis and the Sufi mystic, Ibn Arabi, etc. – he believed to have strayed from true Islam,[4] but he is perhaps best remembered for takfiring the Central Asian Mongols (Tartars) who had invaded the Middle East but also converted to Islam. In a fatwa he declared that Muslims should "combat ... those that place themselves outside the sharia", which the Mongols had done by continuing to follow their traditional Yasa law rather than sharia.[66]
The fatwa was important because the Mongols continued to attack after their conversion and the fatwa gave legitimacy to the Mamluk Jihad against them by "rendering the Mongols apostate", not Muslims, and jihad against them obligatory.[67] "It is obligatory to fight them until they comply to all of the Sharia, even though they may utter the Shahaadataayn" (i.e. the two declarations of faith – "There is no god except Allah and Muhammad is his Messenger").[68]

Living in a time when Islamic jurists tended towards docility in the face of injustice, Ibn Taymiyyah urged jihad against tyrants.[67] His fatwa created a precedent "for the declaration of takfir against a leader", (according to researcher Trevor Stanley),

Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj) as justification for killing Muslim leaders who did not follow sharia.[69]

Ibn Taymiyyah influenced/impressed Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350 AD) and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792 AD), and all three "quoted frequently" by the media of the contemporary Takfiri group ISIS.[4]

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

18th century revivalist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab cited Ibn Taymiyyah in his preaching and his followers slew many Muslims for allegedly kufr practices.[67] Wahhab alleged that many Muslim practices that had become mainstream traditions were bid'a (innovation of the religion) and shirk (polytheism), and consequently many self-professed Muslims were actually unbelievers.[67]

In the view of ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his followers (aka Wahhabis),

"shirk took many forms: the attribution to prophets, saints, astrologers, and soothsayers of knowledge of the unseen world, which only God possesses and can grant; the attribution of power to any being except God, including the power of intercession; reverence given in any way to any created thing, even to the tomb of the Prophet; such superstitious customs as belief in omens and in auspicious and inauspicious days; and swearing by the names of the Prophet, ʿAlī, the Shīʿī imams, or the saints.[70]

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's interpretation of Islam (aka

became enormously influential
throughout the Muslim world starting in the late 20th century, thanks in large part to the financial power of Saudi Arabia which spent tens of billions of dollars to propagate his movement.

19th and early 20th century

Some killings or executions of apostates from the 19th century up to 1970 listed by Rudolph Peters and Gert J. J. De Vries include the strangling of a female apostate in Egypt sometime between 1825 and 1835, an Armenian youth beheaded for reverting to Christianity in 1843 in the Ottoman Empire. Moslems in Afghanistan who converted to Ahmadiyyah condemned to be stoned in 1903 and 1925. [71]

After 1950

According to Hussam S. Timani, both apostasy among Muslims and the number of Muslim groups "adopting the concept of takfir" have increased in recently (as of 2017). Timani states that Muslim scholars blame this on "the decline of Islamic values and the loss of solidarity among the people after centuries of colonialism and foreign domination".[72]

Takfir has become "a central ideology of militant groups" such as those in Egypt, "which reflect the ideas" of

Hasan al-Hudaybi (d. 1977) and Yusuf al-Qaradawi and by mainstream Muslims and Islamist groups.[12]

Sayyid Qutb and Milestones

In his highly influential 1964 book

pagan ignorance" known as jahiliyyah and been "extinct" for "a few centuries".[74] While he did not specifically takfir or call for the execution of those governing non-sharia governments (he wrote Milestones in prison), he emphasized that "the organizations and authorities" of the putatively Muslim countries were irredeemably corrupt and evil[75] and would have to be abolished by "physical power and Jihad",[75] by a "vanguard"[76] movement of true Muslims.[77]

In Pakistan

Takfir has been used against the

Khatam an-Nabiyyin, i.e. the belief that Muhammad was the last and final Prophet and Messenger of God, after whom there can be no other Prophet or Messenger. In 1974 Pakistan amended its constitution to declare Ahmadis as non-Muslims. In 1984, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the then military ruler of Pakistan, issued Ordinance XX,[78][79] forbidding Ahmadis to call themselves Muslim. As a result, they are not allowed to profess the Islamic creed publicly or to call their places of worship mosques,[80] to worship in non-Ahmadi mosques or public prayer-rooms, to perform the Muslim call to prayer, to use the traditional Islamic greeting in public, to publicly quote from the Quran
, to preach in public, to seek converts, or to produce, publish, and disseminate their religious materials.

Local

Zikri of Makran in Balochistan. The Zikri believe that Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri (born in 1443) was the Mahdi (redeemer) of Islam. In 1978 the ulama founded a movement (Tehrik Khatm-e-Nabuat) to have the Pakistan state declare the Zikris as non-Muslims, like the Ahmadis.[81]

Faraj

In 1981,

Ibn Taymiyyah (mentioned above) takfiring Mongols for not ruling by sharia -- "combat ... those that place themselves outside the sharia";[84] And also verse 5:44 of the Quran: "And whoever did not judge (yahkum) by what Allah revealed, those are the unbelievers" (later copied by Osama bin Laden).[84][85]

Salman Rushdie

Main article:
The Satanic Verses controversy

The case of

perceived by many Muslims to contain passages that draw into question the basis of Islam. Similar cases have occurred in Egypt: for example, Nasr Abu Zayd was accused of apostasy following his work on Islamic sources, describing the Qur'an as a historical document.[86]

GIA in Algeria

During the

Islamist insurgent group the GIA (Armed Islamic Group of Algeria) under amir Antar Zouabri issued a manifesto in 1996 entitled The Sharp Sword, presenting Algerian society as resistant to jihad and lamented that the majority of Algerians had "forsaken religion and renounced the battle against its enemies". Zouabri at first took care to deny that the GIA had ever declared takfir on Algerian society itself.[87] But during the month of Ramadan (January–February 1997) hundreds of civilians were killed in massacres,[88] some with their throats cut. The massacres continued for months and culminated in August and September when hundreds of men women and children were killed in the villages of Rais, Bentalha and Beni Messous. Pregnant women were sliced open, children were hacked to pieces or dashed against walls, men's limbs were hacked off one by one, and, as the attackers retreated, they would kidnap young women to keep as sex slaves.[89] The GIA issued a communiqué signed by Zouabri claiming responsibility for the massacres and justifying them—in contradiction to his manifesto—by declaring impious (takfir) all those Algerians who had not joined its ranks.[90] While the GIA had been the "undisputed principal Islamist force" in Algeria two years earlier,[91] the slaughters drained it of popular support and led to the end of "organized jihad" in Algeria.[90] (The issue became complicated by evidence that security forces cooperated with the killers in preventing civilians from escaping, and may even have controlled the GIA.[90]
)

Osama bin Laden

Osama bin Laden takfired the government of Saudi Arabia, his home country, in his "Declaration of War" (part I, October 12, 1996), for example, declared the Saudi government apostate based on verse 5:44 of the Qur'an[92] because in his view the Saudi 'don't apply the Shari'a'[93][85]

Tunisia

The

fatwas that promote takfir.[94]

Islamic State

The

Islamic State has been heavily criticized for applying takfir to Muslims who oppose its rule.[95] According to journalist Graeme Wood
in mid-2015,

Following takfiri doctrine, the Islamic State is committed to purifying the world by killing vast numbers of people. The lack of objective reporting from its territory makes the true extent of the slaughter unknowable, but social-media posts from the region suggest that individual executions happen more or less continually, and mass executions every few weeks.[96]

The tendency of the group to target Shia Muslims with suicide bombings is due to the fact that the group considers them apostates.[97]

Salafi jihadis

It has to be noted that Shiraz Maher does specify that the major Salafi jihadist theorists like Abu Hamza al-Masri, Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, Omar Abdel-Rahman, and Abu Basir al-Tartusi ask to exercise caution while doing takfir, as declaring a Muslim unbeliever wrongly makes the one who accuses to himself get out of the religion of Islam and become an apostate himself.[7]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ description of Abd al-Latif ibn Abd al-Rahman (1810–1876) Head of religious estate in 1860 and early 1870s.
  2. ^ "Most Muslims throughout history have accepted the position that declaring this profession of faith [the shahada] makes one a Muslim. One might or might not regularly perform the other obligatory rituals .... but .... any shortcomings would render one a sinner, not an unbeliever. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab did not accept that view. He argued that the criterion for one's standing as either a Muslim or an unbeliever was correct worship as an expression of belief in one God. ... any act or statement that indicates devotion to a being other than God is to associate another creature with God's power, and that is tantamount to idolatry (shirk). Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his own brother.[20]
  3. ^ The spiritual detachment group called itself jama'a al-'uzla al-sh'uriyya, the "total separation" group preached mufasala kamila. They were incarcerated at the Abu Za'bal "concentration camp".[21]
  4. ^ Types of classical manuals of jurisprudence that listed evidence of apostasy in Islam include: ahkam al-kufr, which are legal works devoted to the rulings on those accused of unbelief; alfaz al-kufr which are a subset of legal treatise dealing with verbal expressions of unbelief, (but in practice also objectional acts).[23]

Citations

  1. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4
    .
  2. ISBN 978-90-04-14743-0
    .
  3. ^
    ISSN 1874-6691
    .
  4. ^
    S2CID 219460446
    .
  5. ^ a b c d e Karawan, Ibrahim A. (1995). "Takfīr". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  6. ^ Brown, Michael (2010). Contending with Terrorism. p. 89.
  7. ^ a b Shiraz Maher, Salafi-Jihadism: The History of an Idea, Penguin UK (2017), p. 75
  8. ISBN 983-9154-70-2
    .
  9. ^ Kepel, Gilles; Jihad: the Trail of Political Islam, London: I.B. Tauris, 2002, p. 31
  10. ^
    S2CID 195448888
    . Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  11. ^
    ISSN 0929-2403
    .
  12. ^ a b c d "Takfiri". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  13. ^
    ISSN 1573-0255
    .
  14. S2CID 152941120
    .
  15. ^ Campo, J. E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase. p.421
  16. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  17. JSTOR 1570336
    .
  18. ^ Asif Iftikhar (March–April 1997). "Murder, Manslaughter and Terrorism – All in the Name of Allah". Renaissance, a monthly Islamic journal. 7 (s. 3–4). Al-Mawrid: Renaissance.com. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.
  19. ^
    ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  20. ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. xix, x.
  21. ^ Kepel, Gilles (1993) [1984]. Muslim Extremism in Egypt : The Prophet and Pharaoh (paperback, English translation ed.). University of California Press. pp. 74–76.
  22. JSTOR 1570336
    .
  23. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  24. ^
    Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Nuh Ha Mim Keller (1368). "Reliance of the Traveller"
    (PDF). Amana Publications. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  25. ^
    Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Nuh Ha Mim Keller (1368). "A Classic Manual of Islamic Scared Law"
    (PDF). Shafiifiqh.com. p. Chapter O8.0: Apostasy from Islam (Ridda). Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  26. ^
    JSTOR 1570336
    .
  27. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  28. ISBN 978-0-674-02208-9
    . But, added al-Ghazali, that applies only to Muslim apostates, and one commits apostasy only when one denies the essential dogmas: monotheism, Muhammad's prophecy, and the Last Judgment.
  29. ^ Al-Ghazali, Fayasl al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa, p.53-67
  30. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  31. ISBN 978-0915957729
    , pp. 596–98, Section O-8.7
  32. ^ "The Book of the Prohibited actions. Sunnah.com reference: Book 18, Hadith 222". Sunnah.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said, 'When a person calls his brother (in Islam) a disbeliever, one of them will certainly deserve the title. If the addressee is so as he has asserted, the disbelief of the man is confirmed, but if it is untrue, then it will revert to him.'
  33. ^ (Abū al-Baqāʿ, al-Kulliyāt (4:111–117); cited in Adams, Charles; Reinhart, A. Kevin. "Kufr". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  34. ^ Nawawi. Al-Maqasid: Nawawi's Manual of Islam (PDF). translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller. pp. 7, 146–47. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  35. ^ Umdat as-Salik by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, p.595ff, (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller)
  36. ^ Mawdhib al-djalil, Book VI, by Hattab, pp. 279–80.
  37. JSTOR 1570336
    .
  38. JSTOR 10.20851/j.ctt1t3051j.13
    . Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  39. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  40. S2CID 219460446
    .
  41. ^
    S2CID 219460446
    .
  42. ^ Wellhausen 1901, pp. 13–14.
  43. ^ Glasse 2001, pp. 255–256.
  44. ^ Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. pp. 59.
  45. ^ Isutzu, Concept of Belief, p. 55-56.
  46. ^ Isutzu, Concept of Belief, p. 55.
  47. Ibn Taymīyah, Abī al-ʻAbbās Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Ḥalīm
    . al-Fatāwá. Vol. 5. pp. 555–556.
  48. Ibn Taymīyah, Abī al-ʻAbbās Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Ḥalīm
    . al-Fatāwá. Vol. 7. pp. 195–205, 223.
  49. ^ "Murjiʾah Islamic sect". Britannica.com. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  50. ^ "Part 1 – History & Thought Mu'tazila use of reasoning in early Islamic debates". Mu'tazila – use of reason in Islamic theology. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  51. S2CID 219460446
    .
  52. ^ "Chapter: What has been said about Bani Israel. Book 60, Hadith 121. Vol. 4, Book 55, Hadith 660". sunnah.com. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
  53. ISBN 9780739194263
    . Retrieved 23 December 2020.
  54. ISBN 9780060563394
    . `Abd al-Wahhab was also fond of citing a precedent in which Abu Bakr reportedly burned so-called hypocrites to death ... most scholars in the Islamic tradition who studied the purported Abu Bakr precedent concluded that the claim that Abu Bakr accused people of hypocrisy who upheld the five pillars and fought them is without support or foundation.
  55. ^ "Obligatory Charity Tax (Zakat). Sahih al-Bukhari 1399, 1400. Book 24, Hadith 5. Vol. 2, Book 24, Hadith 483". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
  56. ^ Francesca 2006, pp. 84–85.
  57. ^ a b Williams & Corfield 2009.
  58. ^ Hawting 1978, p. 460.
  59. ^ Cook, David (2006). "Apostasy from Islam – A Historical Perspective" (PDF). Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. 31: 277. Retrieved 6 January 2021.; cited in Schirrmacher, Christine (2020). "Leaving Islam". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion (PDF). Brill. p. 82. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  60. ^
    ISBN 978-90-04-10678-9
    .
  61. ^ Schirrmacher, Christine (2020). "Leaving Islam". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion (PDF). Brill. p. 81. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  62. ^ Lewis, Bernard. 2002. Die politische Sprache des Islam. Hamburg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt. 144; quoted in Schirrmacher, Christine (2020). "Leaving Islam". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion (PDF). Brill. p. 81. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  63. ^ Nagel, Tilman. 2001. Das islamische Recht. Eine Einführung. Westhofen: WVA Skulima, p.295; quoted in Schirrmacher, Christine (2020). "Leaving Islam". In Enstedt, Daniel; Larsson, Göran; Mantsinen, Teemu T. (eds.). Handbook of Leaving Religion (PDF). Brill. p. 83. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  64. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  65. ISBN 9789004307834
    . Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  66. ^ Kepel, Gilles (1993) [1984]. Muslim Extremism in Egypt : The Prophet and Pharaoh (paperback, English translation ed.). University of California Press. pp. 194–6.
  67. ^ a b c d e Stanley, Trevor. "Definition: Kufr – Kaffir – Takfir – Takfiri". Perspectives on World History and Current Events. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  68. S2CID 219460446
    .
  69. ^ Kepel, Gilles (1993) [1984]. Muslim Extremism in Egypt : The Prophet and Pharaoh (paperback, English translation ed.). University of California Press. pp. 194–199.
  70. ^ Adams, Charles; Reinhart, A. Kevin. "Kufr". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  71. JSTOR 1570336
    .
  72. ISBN 978-0739194256
    . Retrieved 23 December 2020.
  73. ^ Compare: "Takfir". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2016. Takfir[:] Pronouncement that someone is an unbeliever (kafir) and no longer Muslim. Takfir is used in the modern era for sanctioning violence against leaders of Islamic states who are deemed insufficiently religious. It has become a central ideology of militant groups such as those in Egypt, which reflect the ideas of Sayyid Qutb, Mawdudi, Ibn Taymiyyah, and Ibn Kathir. Mainstream Muslims and Islamist groups reject the concept as a doctrinal deviation. Leaders such as Hasan al-Hudaybi (d. 1977) and Yusuf al-Qaradawi reject takfir as un-Islamic and marked by bigotry and zealotry.
  74. ^ Sayyid Qutb, Milestones, p. 11
  75. ^ a b Sayyid Qutb, Milestones, p.55
  76. ^ Sayyid Qutb, Milestones, p.12
  77. ^ Sayyid Qutb, Milestones, p.101-103
  78. ISBN 978-1-85372-386-5
    .
  79. ^ Khan, Naveeda. "Trespasses of the State: Ministering to Theological Dilemmas through the Copyright/Trademark" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2011. Sarai Reader 2005: Bare Acts. p. 178.
  80. ^ Heiner Bielefeldt: "Muslim Voices in the Human Rights Debate", Human rights quarterly, 1995 vol. 17 no. 4 p. 587.
  81. ISBN 9780312216061
    . The Zikris, who form a large proportion of the population of Makran, are the followers of Syed Muhammad (b.1443) who they consider to be a Mahdi. ... In their drive to implement Shariat law the 'ulama founded the Tehrik Khatm-e-Nabuat ... in Balochistan in 1978. Their intention was to demand that the state should declare the Zikris to be non-Muslims, like the Ahmadis earlier.
  82. ^ "Armed Conflict Year Index". Onwar.com. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  83. ^ Cook, David, Understanding Jihad by David Cook, University of California Press, 2005 (p.107)
  84. ^ a b Kepel, Gilles (1993) [1984]. Muslim Extremism in Egypt : The Prophet and Pharaoh (paperback, English translation ed.). University of California Press. pp. 194–195.
  85. ^ a b Gwynne, Rosalind (2001). Al-Qa'ida and al-Qur'an: The Tafsir of Usamah bin Ladin. University of Tennessee. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2011. 'To establish the non-Islamic – hence, apostate - character of the Saudi regime, bin Ladin quotes the same verse that Faraj used against Sadat: "And whoever did not judge (yahkum) by what Allah revealed, those are the unbelievers"' (Q 5:44)
  86. ^ Susanne Olsson, "Apostasy in Egypt: contemporary cases of hisbah", The Muslim World, 98(1):95 – 115, 2008.
  87. ^ Al seif al battar, p.39-40
  88. ^ "Hundreds murdered in widespread Algeria attacks". cnn. 6 January 1998. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  89. ^ "World Report 1999. Human Rights Developments". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 13 November 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  90. ^ a b c Kepel, Jihad, 2002: p.272-3
  91. ^ Kepel, Jihad, 2002: p.265
  92. ^ "Al-Ma'idah Verse 44". quran.com. Retrieved 5 January 2021. "...And those who do not judge by what Allah has revealed are 'truly' the disbelievers." Dr. Mustafa Khattab, the Clear Quran
  93. ^ "Declaration of War" (part I, October 12, 1996), pt. 4 of 9 broad areas of abuse: "To establish the non-Islamic – hence, apostate - character of the Saudi regime, bin Ladin quotes the same verse that Faraj used against Sadat: "And whoever did not judge (yahkum) by what Allah revealed, those are the unbelievers" (Q 5:44)
  94. ^ Al-Haddad, Mohammad (3 February 2014). "Tunisia's New Constitution Criminalizes Takfir". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
  95. ^ BARRETT, RICHARD (November 2014). THE ISLAMIC STATE (PDF). THE SOUFAN GROUP. p. 5. Retrieved 16 June 2016. The Islamic State claims religious legitimacy for its actions. This is based on an extreme salafist/takfiri interpretation of Islam that essentially means that anyone who opposes its rule is by definition either an apostate (murtad) or an infidel (kafir). Although much of the Muslim Middle East is salafist, takfirism is widely considered a step too far, and the absolutism of The Islamic State has already attracted criticism, even from ideologues who support al Qaeda.
  96. ^ WOOD, GRAEME (16 February 2015). "What ISIS Really Wants". The Atlantic (March 2015). Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  97. ^ Compare: "Iraq violence: Islamic State attacks kill dozens". BBC News. 9 June 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2016. The Sunni jihadist group has frequently attacked security targets and Shia Muslims, whom it considers apostates.

Bibliography

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Takfir&oldid=1219640216"
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article: Takfir. Articles is available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license; additional terms may apply.Privacy Policy