Tamils
தமிழர் | |
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Dravidians |
தமிழ் (Tamil) | |
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Person | தமிழர் Tamiḻar |
People | தமிழர்கள் Tamiḻarkaḷ |
Language | தமிழ் Tamiḻ |
Country | தமிழ்நாடு Tamiḻ Nāṭu (hist.) தமிழகம் Tamiḻakam (hist.) ஈழம் Īḻam |
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Tamils |
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The Tamil people, also known as Tamilar (Tamil: தமிழர், romanized: Tamiḻar, pronounced [t̪amiɻaɾ] in the singular or தமிழர்கள், Tamiḻarkaḷ, [t̪amiɻaɾɡaɭ] in the plural), Tamilians,[8] or simply Tamils (/ˈtæmɪlz, ˈtɑː-/ TAM-ilz, TAHM-),[9] are a ethnolinguistic group who natively speak the Tamil language and trace their ancestry mainly to India's southern state of Tamil Nadu, to the union territory of Puducherry, and to Sri Lanka. The Tamil language is one of the world's longest-surviving classical languages,[10][11] with over 2000 years of Tamil literature, including the Sangam poems, which were composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. People who speak Tamil as their mother tongue and are born in Tamil clans are considered Tamils.
Tamils constitute 5.9% of the population in India (concentrated mainly in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry), 15% in Sri Lanka (excluding Eelam Moors),[note 3] 7% in Malaysia, and 5% in Singapore.
From the 4th century BCE,
Tamils were noted for their
Tamil visual art is dominated by
The vast majority of Tamil people are
Etymology
It is unknown whether the term Tamiḻar and its equivalents in
In the
History
In India
Prehistoric period
Possible evidence indicating the earliest presence of Tamil people in modern-day Tamil Nadu are the
Various legends became prevalent after the 10th century CE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to
Classical period
Ancient Tamils had three monarchical states, headed by kings called "Vendhar" and several tribal chieftainships, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination "Vel" or "Velir".
Vedic Sacrifices
Given your fury, which of these then is greater in number
—your once eager enemies shamed and despairing after brandishing
their long spears that throw shadows and their beautiful shields
embossed with iron against the power of your swift vanguard
with its shining weapons, or else the number of spacious sites
where you have set up Yupam (columns) after performing many
sacrifices prescribed by the Four Vedas and the books of ritual,
fine sacrifices of an excellence that will not die away
and charged with a fame that is difficult to achieve,
oblations that rose rich in ghee and all the other elements
of the sacrifice? For you, which is greater in number, O greatness!
—Purananuru 15, Translator: George L. Hart[34]
Culture and tradition of old tamils can be well known by the text Purananuru which mainly talks about public life and explains how people lived in Ancient Tamil Nadu. The text states that several kings believed that Vedic Sacrifices help in upholding righteousness and brings happiness to the country.[35][36][37][38][39][40] Vedas were considered as the book of Righteousness and did not speak about materialism and Cruelness.[41] The text also explains death rituals and concept of Re-birth. after a person is dead all his family and friends weep and cry, if a husband is dead the wife hits her chest and cries and the bangles break.[42][43] Only men go to cremation ground and the women clean the house and apply cow dung to the front yard of the house.[44] The son or some other relative give the body to the person who performs Ritual rights, further the person performs good rituals with the family members to the corpse and finally gives rice to the corpse, The text explains the significance of rice fed by the person to the corpse, and later the body is burnt.[45][46][47] If the wife dies the men feels so sad and also feels to die, he does not want to sleep on the bed of rock and instead sleep in the bed of fire and same rituals are performed.[48] People who perform good deeds in this birth gets a better birth in his next life,[49][50][51] if a king was so good and generous, The king of Heaven Indra who holds the Vajra welcomes him to Heaven with pleasure.[52] If a person lives a normal life he goes to the world of dead (Probably Pitru Lokam).[53] After all the rituals a Nadukal is kept for the dead king and is worshiped by people.[54] Some poets consider Nadukal as the only god.
Agriculture was important during this period, and there is evidence that networks of
The classical period ended around the 4th century CE with invasions by the
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Megalithic sarcophagus burial from Tamil Nadu
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Virampatnam jewelry from funerary burial, 2nd century BCE, Tamil Nadu
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Souttoukeny jewelry, 2nd century BCE, Tamil Nadu
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Map of ancient oceanic trade, and ports of Tamilakam
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Tamiḻakam during Sangam Period
Economy, trade and maritime
The Tamil country is strategically located in the
Imperial and post-imperial periods
The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in Tamil
These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant
Under
The eventual decline of Chola power in South India began towards the end of Kulottunga III's reign. It was accentuated by the resurgence of Pandyas under
Tamil history turned a new leaf with the advent of the warrior prince, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I. In the ensuing wars for supremacy, he emerged as the single most victorious ruler and the Pandya kingdom reached its zenith in the 13th century during his reign. Jatavarman Sundara Pandya first put an end to Hoysala interference by expelling them from the Kaveri delta and subsequently killed their king Vira Someswara in 1262 AD near Srirangam. He then defeated Kopperunjinga, the Kadava chieftain, and turned him into a vassal. The Pandya then turned his attention to the north and annexed Kanchi by killing the Telugu chief Vijaya Gandagopala. He then marched up to Nellore and celebrated his victories there by doing the virabisheka(anointment of heroes) after defeating the Kakatiya ruler, Ganapati. Meanwhile, his lieutenant Vira Pandya defeated the king of Lanka and obtained the submission of the island nation.[84] In the 14th century, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also had to face repeated invasions by the Delhi Sultanate. In 1335, Madurai, the Pandyan capital, was conquered by Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan and a short-lived Madurai Sultanate was established, but was captured in 1378 by the Vijayanagara Empire.
Throughout the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire was the dominant power of South India.In the early 16th century (about 1520 CE), Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore rose out of obscurity and plundered the dominions of the then Pandya prince in south. The Pandya who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent (Karyakartta) Nagama Nayaka who was stationed in the south to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but to everyone's surprise the once loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor for some reason and decided to keep Madurai for himself.[85] Krishnadeva Raya is then said to have dispatched Nagama's son, Viswanatha who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara.[86] The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas is not known. It is speculated that he either fell in battle or was put to death along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara.[87] Later when the Vijayanagara empire crumbled and fell after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, the Nayaks who had once been viceroys asserted their independence and ruled independently from Madurai and Thanjavur.[88]
The area west of the Western Ghats became increasingly politically distinct from the Eastern parts ruled by Chola and Pandya Dynasties[89] Kerala was until 9th century, culturally and linguistically part of Tamilakam, with the local Koduntamil evolving to Malayalam.[90] This socio-culturally transformation was altered through Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan migration from Northern India in the 8th century.[91]
In Sri Lanka
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Sri Lankan Tamils |
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There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka.[93] One theory is that cultural diffusion well before Sinhalese arrival in Sri Lanka led to Tamil replacing a previous language of an indigenous Mesolithic population that became the Eelam Tamils.[94]
According to their tradition, Eelam Tamils are lineal descendants of the aboriginal
Pre-Anuradhapura period
Settlements of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island, with villages established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE.[96][97] Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed the date back to the 15th century BCE, and in Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occurs at least around the 9th or 10th century BCE.[98]
Anuradhapura period
Early South Indian type
Polonnaruwa period to the Kandyan period
In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE, after which Chola influence declined in Sri Lanka.
The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: The "Radala" the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava.[115][116][117] The Hindu migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century.[115]
British occupation & contemporary Sri Lanka
British colonists consolidated the Tamil territory in southern India into the Madras Presidency, which was integrated into British India. Similarly, the majority Tamil speaking parts of Sri Lanka joined with the other regions of the island in 1802 to form the Ceylon colony until it gained independence in 1948 with both Sinhalese and Tamil populations.
Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in British Ceylon for better administration.[118][full citation needed] During the British colonial rule, many Tamils held higher positions than the Sinhalese in the government, because they were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the Eelam highlands the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and Indian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers.[119] After the British colonial rule in Sri Lanka ended, ethnic tension between the Sinhalese and the Eelam Tamils rose. The Sinhalese, constituting a majority of the country, resented the minority Tamils having huge power in the island. In 1948, about 700,000 Indian Tamil tea plantation workers from Sri Lanka were made stateless and deported to India. In 1956, the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka passed the Sinhala Only Act, an act where Sinhala replaced English as the only official language of Sri Lanka. Due to this, many Tamils were forced to resign as civil servants/public servants because they were not fluent in Sinhala.[120] The Eelam Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them.
After anti-Tamil
Geographic distribution
India
Most Tamils in India live in the state of
There are significant Tamil communities in other parts of India. Most of these have emerged fairly recently, dating to the colonial and post-colonial periods, but some date back to the medieval period.[
Sri Lanka
There are two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka: the
Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.[128] Historically both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.[129]
Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about 40 percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and many of the remainder were
Tamil diaspora
Significant Tamil emigration began in the 18th century, when the British colonial government sent many middle-class and poor Tamils as
Many Tamils still live in these countries, and the Tamil communities in
A large emigration also began in the 1980s, as Eelam Tamils sought to escape the ethnic conflict there. These recent emigrants have most often moved to Australia, Europe, North America and southeast Asia.[134][page needed] Today, the largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka can be found in Toronto.[135]
Culture
Language and literature
Tamils have strong attachment to the Tamil language, which is often venerated in literature as Tamil̲an̲n̲ai, "the Tamil mother".
Martial traditions
Various martial arts including
Wootz steel originated in South India and Sri Lanka.[145][dead link][146] There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high-carbon Indian steel since the time of Alexander's India campaign. The crucible steel production process started in the sixth century BCE at Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Andhra Pradesh, in Karnataka and in Sri Lanka. It was exported globally, with the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed "the finest steel in the world",[by whom?] i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BCE.[147][148][page needed][149] The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".[150]
The Tamilakam method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heated and hammered to be rid of slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as
Traditional weapons
The Tamil martial arts also includes various types of weapons.
- Valari (Boomerang)
- Maduvu (deer horns)
- Surul vaal (curling blade)
- Vaal (sword) + Kedayam (shield)
- eetti or Vel (spear)
- Savuku (whip)
- Kattari (fist blade)
- Veecharuval (Billhook Machete)
- Silambam (long bamboo staff)
- Kuttu kattai(spiked knuckleduster)
- Katti (dagger/knife)
- Vil (bow) + Ambu (arrow)
- Tantayutam (mace)
- Soolam (trident)
Visual art and architecture
Most traditional art is religious in some form and usually centres on Hinduism, although the religious element is often only a means to represent universal—and, occasionally, humanist—themes.[158][page needed][need quotation to verify]
The most important form of Tamil painting is
Tamil sculpture ranges from elegant stone sculptures in temples, to bronze icons with exquisite details.[161] The medieval Chola bronzes are considered to be one of India's greatest contributions to world art.[162][163] Unlike most Western art, the material in Tamil sculpture does not influence the form taken by the sculpture; instead, the artist imposes his/her vision of the form on the material.[164] As a result, one often sees in stone sculptures flowing forms that are usually reserved for metal.[165][page needed]
Music
Ancient Tamil works, such as the
Performing arts
Notable Tamil dance styles are
- Sathirattam / Viraliyarkoothu/Bharatanatyam (Tamil classical dance)
- Karakattam (Tamil ancient folk dance)
- Koothu (A folk and street dance)
- Parai attam (A folk drums and dance)
- Murugan)
- Kummiyattam (female folk dance)
- Bommalattam (Puppet dance)
- Puliyattam (Tiger dance)
- Mayilattam (Peacock dance)
- Paampu attam (Snake dance)
- Oyilattam (Dance of Grace)
- Poikkaal Kuthirai Aattam (False legged horses dance)
In its religious form, the Karakattam dance is performed in front of an image of the goddess
Film and theatre arts
Theatrical culture flourished among Tamils during the classical age. Tamil theatre has a long and varied history whose origins can be traced back almost two millennia to dance-theatre forms like Kotukotti and Pandarangam, which are mentioned in an ancient anthology of poems entitled the Kalingathu Parani.
Sports in Tamil Nadu
The people of Tamil Nadu play traditional sports and sports from other countries. Tamil Nadu has some notable players in each sport.
- Jallikattu: a bull-taming sport in Tamil Nadu that is over 2,000 years old and an integral part of Tamil culture. In ancient times, two bull-taming and bull-racing sports were pursued, called Manjuvirattu and Yeruthazhuval, with the aim of keeping people's temperament fit and ready for war at any time. Each has its own techniques and rules. Proficiency in these sports was one of the criteria for marrying girls of a warrior family. There were traditions where the winner would be chosen as bridegroom for their daughter or sister. On the other hand, the untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner/village and used for breeding the cows. Unlike western bullfighting, bulls and warriors participated in the sport year after year. The sport, popular amongst warriors in the classical period,[176][177] survives in parts of Tamil Nadu, notably Alanganallur near Madurai, where it is held once a year around the time of the Pongal festival.
- Kabaddi: a traditional sport that originated in Tamil Nadu.[178]
- Mattu Vandy Elgai Panthayam (Reckla Race): bullock cart racing is mostly celebrated in southern Tamil Nadu.
- Silambam (Staff fencing): a martial art originated in the ancient Tamilakam. In 1978, the Tamil Nadu government and Tamil Nadu Olympic Federation recognized Silambam as a traditional sport, but it was not recognized by the Sports Ministry of India and Indian Olympic Association.[179]
Tamil cuisine
Tamil cuisine includes vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Some Tamils are vegetarian because of religious reasons.
Genetics
Tamils, who primarily inhabit the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka, have a unique genetic heritage shaped by various historical migrations and interactions.[182] Genetic studies have provided us with fascinating insights into the Tamil population's genetic makeup, revealing several areas of interest. For instance, Tamils are primarily of Dravidian origin, with their genetic makeup characterized by a Dravidian component that sets them apart from other South Asian populations.[183]
Linguistic studies have identified the Dravidian language family, which includes Tamil, as distinct from the Indo-Aryan languages of northern India. Genetic research has sought to correlate language and genetics, finding a correspondence between linguistic and genetic diversity. Genetic research has also revealed subdivisions within the Tamil population, such as genetic distinctions between Tamil Brahmins and non-Brahmin Tamils.[184] Tamil Brahmins have a North Indian genetic component due to their migration, while non-Brahmin Tamils have a distinct genetic makeup.[185]
Some studies have indicated that Tamils share genetic ancestry with other Dravidian-speaking populations, such as the Telugu people and Kannadigas of South India. Genetic studies have distinguished between Tamil populations in India and Sri Lanka,[186] showing some genetic differences due to historical migrations and adaptations. Tamil Nadu's history includes interactions with various cultures and migrations, such as Indo-Aryan migrations, interactions with trade and colonial powers, and more. These have left genetic imprints on the Tamil population, making them a unique and intriguing group to study.
Religion
Ancient Tamil grammatical works,
The cult of the
In Tamil Nadu,
The most popular Tamil deity is Murugan; he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also called "Tamil Kadavul" (Tamil God).
Muslims across Tamil Nadu
Among the ancient Tamils the practice of erecting memorial stones (
The most important Tamil festivals are
]In rural Tamil Nadu, many local deities, called
Tamil Jains constituted around 0.13% of the population of Tamil Nadu in 2001.[192] Many of the classical Tamil literature works were written by Jains.[208][full citation needed] According to George L. Hart, the legend of the Tamil Sangams or literary assemblies was based on the Jain sangham at Madurai.[209]
Notable Tamil people
See also
- List of languages by first written accounts
- Tamil population by cities
- Tamil population by nation
- Tamil Eelam
- Kumari Kandam
Notes
- mother tongue, but instead as a second or third language.
- ^ Note: The Singapore Tamil population data excludes Tamils who were unable to speak and those in one-person households and households comprising only unrelated persons.
- Sri Lankan government lists a substantial Tamil-speaking Muslim population as a distinct ethnicity. However, much of the available genealogical evidence suggests that the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had simply converted to Islam from other faiths.[13][14][15] It is also evidenced by the fact that Sri Lankan Moors were not a self-defined group of people and neither did the 'Moor' identity exist before the arrival of Portuguese colonists.[citation needed]
References
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- ISBN 9781607528241.
Tamilians, a group living in the southern state of Tamil Nadu.
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- ^ Steever 1998, pp. 6–9
- ^ "A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012". Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka.
- ^ a b Mohan, Vasundhara (1987). Identity Crisis of Sri Lankan Muslims. Delhi: Mittal Publications. pp. 9–14, 27–30, 67–74, 113–18.
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But Indian/south Indian history/archaeology has pushed the date back to 1500 B.C., and in Sri Lanka, there are definitely good radiometric dates coming from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur at least around 900 B.C. or 1000 B.C.
- ^ Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture – K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, pp. 4&>'67
- JSTOR 2790468,
It is necessary to draw attention to certain passages in early Tamil literature which throw a great deal of light upon this strange burial ceremonial ...
- ^ a b Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. p. 105.
- ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 109–12.
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There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements ...
- ^ a b Sinha, Kanchan (1979). Kartikeya in Indian art and literature. Sundeep Prakashan.
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Those who ruled over small territories were called Kurunilamannar. The area ruled by such a small ruler usually corresponded to a geographical unit. In Purananuru a number of such chieftains are mentioned;..
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 15 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 224 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 166 by George L. III Hart".
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- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 6 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 93 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 122 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 362 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 231 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 245 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 234 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 363 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 246 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 234 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 234 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 357 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ Even though this world with its hills and mountains is held in common by the three great Thamizh kings, there have been some who ruled thinking that it was not common, and they have died, their wealth not accompanying them. Only good deeds that are sown in this life will bring happiness in the next birth. For those who abandon this raft, it will be difficult to go from this world to the next world when Kootruvan seizes their lives, and their loved ones gather together and weep.
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 134 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 241 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 245 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 232 by George L. III Hart".
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These Kalabhras were thrown out by the powerful Pallava dynasty in the fourth century AD ... this period is aptly known as "Dark Ages" of Tamil Nadu.
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Kalabhraas were denounced as 'evil kings' (kaliararar)
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... Starting from the Tamil lands under the Pallava kings, bhakti spread to different parts of south India ...
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Further reading
- Bowers, F. (1956). Theatre in the East – A Survey of Asian Dance and Drama. Grove Press.
- Chaitanya, Krishna (1971). A history of Malayalam literature. Orient Longman. ISBN 81-250-0488-2.
- Hart, G. L. (1979). "The Nature of Tamil Devotion". In Deshpande, M. M.; Hook, P. E. (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in India. Ann Arbor. pp. 11–33. ISBN 0-89148-014-5.
- Hart, G. L. (1987). "Early Evidence for Caste in South India". In Hockings, P. (ed.). Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David B. Mandelbaum. Mouton Gruyter.
- Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Publications. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.
- Varadpande, M. L. (1992). Loka Ranga: Panorama of Indian Folk Theatre. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-278-0.
- Zvebil, K. (1974). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Brill. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.