Tasmanian devil
Tasmanian devil Temporal range: Holocene
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Infraclass: | Marsupialia |
Order: | Dasyuromorphia |
Family: | Dasyuridae |
Genus: | Sarcophilus |
Species: | S. harrisii
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Binomial name | |
Sarcophilus harrisii | |
Distribution of the Tasmanian devil on Tasmania in grey (note: reintroduced New South Wales distribution not mapped) |
The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) (
Although devils are usually solitary, they sometimes eat and defecate together in a communal location. Unlike most other
Females average four breeding seasons in their life, and give birth to 20 to 30 live young after three weeks' gestation. The newborn are pink, lack fur, have indistinct facial features, and weigh around 0.20 g (0.0071 oz) at birth. As there are only four nipples in the pouch, competition is fierce, and few newborns survive. The young grow rapidly, and are ejected from the pouch after around 100 days, weighing roughly 200 g (7.1 oz). The young become independent after around nine months.
In 1941, devils became officially protected. Since the late 1990s, the
Taxonomy
Believing it to be a type of opossum, naturalist George Harris wrote the first published description of the Tasmanian devil in 1807, naming it Didelphis ursina,[4] due to its bearlike characteristics such as the round ear.[5] He had earlier made a presentation on the topic at the Zoological Society of London.[6] However, that particular binomial name had been given to the common wombat (later reclassified as Vombatus ursinus) by George Shaw in 1800, and was hence unavailable.[7] In 1838, a specimen was named Dasyurus laniarius by Richard Owen,[3] but by 1877 he had relegated it to Sarcophilus. The modern Tasmanian devil was named Sarcophilus harrisii ("Harris's flesh-lover") by French naturalist Pierre Boitard in 1841.[8]
A later revision of the devil's taxonomy, published in 1987, attempted to change the species name to Sarcophilus laniarius based on mainland fossil records of only a few animals.[9] However, this was not accepted by the taxonomic community at large; the name S. harrisii has been retained and S. laniarius relegated to a fossil species.[7] "Beelzebub's pup" was an early vernacular name given to it by the explorers of Tasmania, in reference to a religious figure who is a prince of hell and an assistant of Satan;[6] the explorers first encountered the animal by hearing its far-reaching vocalisations at night.[10] Related names that were used in the 19th century were Sarcophilus satanicus ("Satanic flesh-lover") and Diabolus ursinus ("bear devil"), all due to early misconceptions of the species as implacably vicious.[6] The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) belongs to the family Dasyuridae. The genus Sarcophilus contains two other species, known only from Pleistocene fossils: S. laniarius and S. moomaensis. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the Tasmanian devil is most closely related to quolls.[11]
According to Pemberton, the possible ancestors of the devil may have needed to climb trees to acquire food, leading to a growth in size and the hopping gait of many marsupials. He speculated that these adaptations may have caused the contemporary devil's peculiar gait.[12] The specific lineage of the Tasmanian devil is theorised to have emerged during the Miocene, molecular evidence suggesting a split from the ancestors of quolls between 10 and 15 million years ago,[13] when severe climate change came to bear in Australia, transforming the climate from warm and moist to an arid, dry ice age, resulting in mass extinctions.[12] As most of their prey died of the cold, only a few carnivores survived, including the ancestors of the quoll and thylacine. It is speculated that the devil lineage may have arisen at this time to fill a niche in the ecosystem, as a scavenger that disposed of carrion left behind by the selective-eating thylacine.[12] The extinct Glaucodon ballaratensis of the Pliocene age has been dubbed an intermediate species between the quoll and devil.[14]
Fossil deposits in limestone caves at Naracoorte, South Australia, dating to the Miocene include specimens of S. laniarius, which were around 15% larger and 50% heavier than modern devils.[15] Older specimens believed to be 50–70,000 years old were found in Darling Downs in Queensland and in Western Australia.[16] It is not clear whether the modern devil evolved from S. laniarius, or whether they coexisted at the time.[16] Richard Owen argued for the latter hypothesis in the 19th century, based on fossils found in 1877 in New South Wales.[16] Large bones attributed to S. moornaensis have been found in New South Wales,[16] and it has been conjectured that these two extinct larger species may have hunted and scavenged.[16] It is known that there were several genera of thylacine millions of years ago, and that they ranged in size, the smaller being more reliant on foraging.[17] As the devil and thylacine are similar, the extinction of the co-existing thylacine genera has been cited as evidence for an analogous history for the devils.[18] It has been speculated that the smaller size of S. laniarius and S. moornaensis allowed them to adapt to the changing conditions more effectively and survive longer than the corresponding thylacines.[18] As the extinction of these two species came at a similar time to human habitation of Australia, hunting by humans and land clearance have been mooted as possible causes.[19] Critics of this theory point out that as indigenous Australians only developed boomerangs and spears for hunting around 10,000 years ago, a critical fall in numbers due to systematic hunting is unlikely. They also point out that caves inhabited by Aborigines have a low proportion of bones and rock paintings of devils, and suggest that this is an indication that it was not a large part of indigenous lifestyle. A scientific report in 1910 claimed that Aborigines preferred the meat of herbivores rather than carnivores.[20] The other main theory for the extinction was that it was due to the climate change brought on by the most recent ice age.[19]
Genetics
The Tasmanian devil's
One strand conformation polymorphism analysis (OSCP) on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I domain taken from various locations across Tasmania showed 25 different types, and showed a different pattern of MHC types in north-western Tasmania to eastern Tasmania. Those devils in the east of the state have less MHC diversity; 30% are of the same type as the tumour (type 1), and 24% are of type A.[28] Seven of every ten devils in the east are of type A, D, G or 1, which are linked to DFTD; whereas only 55% of the western devils fall into these MHC categories. Of the 25 MHC types, 40% are exclusive to the western devils. Although the north-west population is less genetically diverse overall, it has higher MHC gene diversity, which allows them to mount an immune response to DFTD. According to this research, mixing the devils may increase the chance of disease.[28] Of the fifteen different regions in Tasmania surveyed in this research, six were in the eastern half of the island. In the eastern half, Epping Forest had only two different types, 75% being type O. In the Buckland-Nugent area, only three types were present, and there were an average of 5.33 different types per location. In contrast, in the west, Cape Sorell yielded three types, and Togari North-Christmas Hills yielded six, but the other seven sites all had at least eight MHC types, and West Pencil Pine had 15 types. There was an average of 10.11 MHC types per site in the west.[28] Recent research has suggested that the wild population of devils are rapidly evolving a resistance to DFTD.[29]
Description
The Tasmanian devil is the largest surviving carnivorous
Devils are fully grown at two years of age,
The Tasmanian devil has the most powerful bite relative to body size of any living mammalian carnivore, with a Bite Force Quotient of 181 and exerting a canine bite force of 553 N (56.4 kgf).[41][42] The jaw can open to 75–80 degrees, allowing the devil to generate the large amount of power to tear meat and crush bones[38]—sufficient force to allow it to bite through thick metal wire.[43] The power of the jaws is in part due to its comparatively large head. The teeth and jaws of Tasmanian devils resemble those of hyenas, an example of convergent evolution.[44][45] Dasyurid teeth resemble those of primitive marsupials. Like all dasyurids, the devil has prominent canines and cheek teeth. It has three pairs of lower incisors and four pairs of upper incisors. These are located at the top of the front of the devil's mouth.[46] Like dogs, it has 42 teeth, however, unlike dogs, its teeth are not replaced after birth but grow continuously throughout life at a slow rate.[37][45] It has a "highly carnivorous dentition and trophic adaptations for bone consumption".[47] The devil has long claws that allow it to dig burrows and seek subterranean food easily and grip prey or mates strongly.[45] The teeth and claw strength allow the devil to attack wombats up to 30 kg (66 lb) in weight.[47] The large neck and forebody that give the devil its strength also cause this strength to be biased towards the front half of the body; the lopsided, awkward, shuffling gait of the devil is attributed to this.[48]
The devil has long
Distribution and habitat
The Tasmanian devil was formerly present across mainland Australia, but became extinct there 3,500 years ago, co-incident with the extinction of the Thylacine from the region. A number of causal factors for the extinction have been proposed, including the introduction of the dingo, intensification of human activity, as well as climatic change.[50]
Devils are found in all habitats on the island of Tasmania, including the outskirts of urban areas, and are distributed throughout the Tasmanian mainland and on
The "core habitat" of the devils is considered to be within the "low to moderate annual rainfall zone of eastern and north-western Tasmania".[27] Tasmanian devils particularly like dry sclerophyll forests and coastal woodlands.[56] Although they are not found at the highest altitudes of Tasmania, and their population density is low in the button grass plains in the south-west of the state, their population is high in dry or mixed sclerophyll forests and coastal heaths. Devils prefer open forest to tall forest, and dry rather than wet forests.[26] They are also found near roads where roadkill is prevalent, although the devils themselves are often killed by vehicles while retrieving the carrion.[51] According to the Threatened Species Scientific Committee, their versatility means that habitat modification from destruction is not seen as a major threat to the species.[51]
The devil is directly linked to the
In late 2020, Tasmanian devils were reintroduced to mainland Australia in a sanctuary run by
Ecology and behaviour
The Tasmanian devil is a
Young devils can climb trees, but this becomes more difficult as they grow larger.[63][64] Devils can scale trees of trunk diameter larger than 40 cm (16 in), which tend to have no small side branches to hang onto, up to a height of around 2.5–3 m (8.2–9.8 ft). Devils that are yet to reach maturity can climb shrubs to a height of 4 metres (13.1 ft), and can climb a tree to 7 m (23 ft) if it is not vertical.[65] Adult devils may eat young devils if they are very hungry, so this climbing behaviour may be an adaptation to allow young devils to escape.[66] Devils can also swim and have been observed crossing rivers that are 50 metres (160 ft) in width, including icy cold waterways, apparently enthusiastically.[63]
Tasmanian devils do not form packs, but rather spend most of their time alone once weaned.
Devils use three or four dens regularly. Dens formerly owned by
While the dasyurids have similar diet and anatomy, differing body sizes affect thermoregulation and thus behaviour.[73] In ambient temperatures between 5 and 30 °C (41 and 86 °F), the devil was able to maintain a body temperature between 37.4 and 38 °C (99.3 and 100.4 °F). When the temperature was raised to 40 °C (104 °F), and the humidity to 50%, the devil's body temperature spiked upwards by 2 °C (3.6 °F) within 60 minutes, but then steadily decreased back to the starting temperature after a further two hours, and remained there for two more hours. During this time, the devil drank water and showed no visible signs of discomfort, leading scientists to believe that sweating and evaporative cooling is its primary means of heat dissipation.[74] A later study found that devils pant but do not sweat to release heat.[27] In contrast, many other marsupials were unable to keep their body temperatures down.[75] As the smaller animals have to live in hotter and more arid conditions to which they are less well-adapted, they take up a nocturnal lifestyle and drop their body temperatures during the day, whereas the devil is active in the day and its body temperature varies by 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) from its minimum at night to the maximum in the middle of the day.[76]
The standard
Feeding
Tasmanian devils can take prey up to the size of a small
Despite their lack of extreme speed, there have been reports that devils can run at 25 km/h (16 mph) for 1.5 km (0.93 mi), and it has been conjectured that, before European immigration and the introduction of livestock, vehicles and roadkill, they would have had to chase other native animals at a reasonable pace to find food.[63] Pemberton has reported that they can average 10 km/h (6.2 mph) for "extended periods" on several nights per week, and that they run for long distances before sitting still for up to half an hour, something that has been interpreted as evidence of ambush predation.[63]
Devils can dig to forage
On average, devils eat about 15% of their body weight each day, although they can eat up to 40% of their body weight in 30 minutes if the opportunity arises.[39] This means they can become very heavy and lethargic after a large meal; in this state they tend to waddle away slowly and lie down, becoming easy to approach. This has led to a belief that such eating habits became possible due to the lack of a predator to attack such bloated individuals.[82]
Tasmanian devils can eliminate all traces of a carcass of a smaller animal, devouring the bones and fur if desired.[84] In this respect, devils have earned the gratitude of Tasmanian farmers, as the speed at which they clean a carcass helps prevent the spread of insects that might otherwise harm livestock.[85] Some of these dead animals are disposed of when the devils haul off the excess feed back to their residence to continue eating at a later time.[81]
The diet of a devil can vary substantially for males and females, and seasonally, according to studies at Cradle Mountain. In winter, males prefer medium mammals over larger ones, with a ratio of 4:5, but in summer, they prefer larger prey in a 7:2 ratio. These two categories accounted for more than 95% of the diet. Females are less inclined to target large prey, but have the same seasonal bias. In winter, large and medium mammals account for 25% and 58% each, with 7% small mammals and 10% birds. In summer, the first two categories account for 61% and 37% respectively.[62]
Juvenile devils are sometimes known to climb trees;
Although they hunt alone,
A study of feeding devils identified twenty physical postures, including their characteristic vicious yawn, and eleven different vocal sounds, including clicks, shrieks and various types of
Digestion is very fast in dasyurids and, for the Tasmanian devil, the few hours taken for food to pass through the small gut is a long period in comparison to some other dasyuridae.[91] Devils are known to return to the same places to defecate, and to do so at a communal location, called a devil latrine.[92] It is believed that the communal defecation may be a means of communication that is not well understood.[92] Devil scats are very large compared to body size; they are on average 15 centimetres (5.9 in) long, but there have been samples that are 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in length.[92] They are characteristically grey in colour due to digested bones, or have bone fragments included.[26]
Owen and Pemberton believe that the relationship between Tasmanian devils and thylacines was "close and complex", as they competed directly for prey and probably also for shelter. The thylacines preyed on the devils, the devils scavenged from the thylacine's kills, and the devils ate thylacine young. Menna Jones hypothesises that the two species shared the role of apex predator in Tasmania.[93] Wedge-tailed eagles have a similar carrion-based diet to the devils and are regarded as competitors.[94] Quolls and devils are also seen as being in direct competition in Tasmania. Jones believed that the quoll has evolved into its current state in just 100–200 generations of around two years as determined by the equal spacing effect on the devil, the largest species, the spotted-tail quoll, and the smallest species, the eastern quoll.[95] Both the Tasmanian devil and the quolls appears to have evolved up to 50 times faster than the average evolutionary rate amongst mammals.[96]
Reproduction
Females start to breed when they reach sexual maturity, typically in their second year. At this point, they become
Occurring in March, mating takes places in sheltered locations during both day and night. Males fight over females in the breeding season, and female devils will mate with the dominant male.[37][99] Females can ovulate up to three times in a 21-day period, and copulation can take five days; one instance of a couple being in the mating den for eight days has been recorded.[99] Devils are not monogamous, and females will mate with several males if not guarded after mating; males also reproduce with several females during a season.[37][99] Females have been shown to be selective in an attempt to ensure the best genetic offspring,[99] for example, fighting off the advances of smaller males.[27] Males often keep their mates in custody in the den, or take them along if they need to drink, lest they engage in infidelity.[99]
Males can produce up to 16 offspring over their lifetime, while females average four mating seasons and 12 offspring.[99] Theoretically this means that a devil population can double on an annual basis and make the species insulated against high mortality.[100] The pregnancy rate is high; 80% of two-year-old females were observed with newborns in their pouches during the mating season.[99] More recent studies of breeding place the mating season between February and June, as opposed to between February and March.[26]
Gestation lasts 21 days, and devils give birth to 20–30 young standing up,[37][99] each weighing approximately 0.18–0.24 grams (0.0063–0.0085 oz).[56] Embryonic diapause does not occur.[97] At birth, the front limb has well-developed digits with claws; unlike many marsupials, the claws of baby devils are not deciduous. As with most other marsupials, the forelimb is longer (0.26–0.43 cm or 0.10–0.17 in) than the rear limb (0.20–0.28 cm or 0.079–0.110 in), the eyes are spots, and the body is pink. There are no external ears or openings. Unusually, the sex can be determined at birth, with an external scrotum present.[97]
Tasmanian devil young are variously called "pups",[37] "joeys",[101] or "imps".[102] When the young are born, competition is fierce as they move from the vagina in a sticky flow of mucus to the pouch. Once inside the pouch, they each remain attached to a nipple for the next 100 days. The female Tasmanian devil's pouch, like that of the wombat, opens to the rear, so it is physically difficult for the female to interact with young inside the pouch. Despite the large litter at birth, the female has only four nipples, so there are never more than four babies nursing in the pouch, and the older a female devil gets, the smaller her litters will become. Once the young have made contact with the nipple, it expands, resulting in the oversized nipple being firmly clamped inside the newborn and ensuring that the newborn does not fall out of the pouch.[37][99] On average, more females survive than males,[97] and up to 60% of young do not survive to maturity.[61] Milk replacements are often used for devils that have been bred in captivity, for orphaned devils or young who are born to diseased mothers. Little is known about the composition of the devil's milk compared to other marsupials.[103]
Inside the pouch, the nourished young develop quickly. In the second week, the
The devils have a complete set of facial
After being ejected, the devils stay outside the pouch, but they remain in the den for around another three months, first venturing outside the den between October and December before becoming independent in January. During this transitional phase out of the pouch, the young devils are relatively safe from predation as they are generally accompanied. When the mother is hunting they can stay inside a shelter or come along, often riding on their mother's back. During this time they continue to drink their mother's milk. Female devils are occupied with raising their young for all but approximately six weeks of the year.[97][104] The milk contains a higher amount of iron than the milk of placental mammals.[27] In Guiler's 1970 study, no females died while rearing their offspring in the pouch. After leaving the pouch, the devils grow by around 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) a month until they are six months old.[97] While most pups will survive to be weaned,[26] Guiler reported that up to three fifths of devils do not reach maturity.[61] As juveniles are more crepuscular than adults, their appearance in the open during summer gives the impression to humans of a population boom.[61] A study into the success of translocated devils that were orphaned and raised in captivity found that young devils who had consistently engaged with new experiences while they were in captivity survived better than young who had not.[105]
Conservation status
The cause of the devil's disappearance from the mainland is unclear, but their decline seems to coincide with an abrupt change in climate and the expansion across the mainland of
Habitat disruption can expose dens where mothers raise their young. This increases mortality, as the mother leaves the disturbed den with her pups clinging to her back, making them more vulnerable.
Population declines
At least two major population declines, possibly due to disease epidemics, have occurred in recorded history: in 1909 and 1950.
The species was listed as vulnerable under the Tasmanian
Culling
The first European Tasmanian settlers ate Tasmanian devil, which they described as tasting like veal.[120] As it was believed devils would hunt and kill livestock, possibly due to strong imagery of packs of devils eating weak sheep, a bounty scheme to remove the devil from rural properties was introduced as early as 1830.[121] However, Guiler's research contended that the real cause of livestock losses was poor land management policies and feral dogs.[121] In areas where the devil is now absent, poultry has continued to be killed by quolls. In earlier times, hunting possums and wallabies for fur was a big business—more than 900,000 animals were hunted in 1923—and this resulted in a continuation of bounty hunting of devils as they were thought to be a major threat to the fur industry, even though quolls were more adept at hunting the animals in question.[122] Over the next 100 years, trapping and poisoning[123] brought them to the brink of extinction.[112]
After the death of the last thylacine in 1936,[124] the Tasmanian devil was protected by law in June 1941 and the population slowly recovered.[112] In the 1950s, with reports of increasing numbers, some permits to capture devils were granted after complaints of livestock damage. In 1966, poisoning permits were issued although attempts to have the animal unprotected failed.[125] During this time environmentalists also became more outspoken, particularly as scientific studies provided new data suggesting the threat of devils to livestock had been vastly exaggerated.[126] Numbers may have peaked in the early 1970s after a population boom; in 1975 they were reported to be lower, possibly due to overpopulation and consequent lack of food.[127] Another report of overpopulation and livestock damage was reported in 1987.[128] The following year, Trichinella spiralis, a parasite which kills animals and can infect humans, was found in devils and minor panic broke out before scientists assured the public that 30% of devils had it but that they could not transmit it to other species.[129] Control permits were ended in the 1990s, but illegal killing continues to a limited extent, albeit "locally intense". This is not considered a substantial problem for the survival of the devil.[51] Approximately 10,000 devils were killed per year in the mid-1990s.[27] A selective culling program has taken place to remove individuals affected with DFTD, and has been shown to not slow the rate of disease progression or reduced the number of animals dying.[130] A model has been tested to find out whether culling devils infected with DFTD would assist in the survival of the species, and it has found that culling would not be a suitable strategy to employ.[131]
Road mortality
Motor vehicles are a threat to localised populations of non-abundant Tasmanian mammals,[132][133] and a 2010 study showed that devils were particularly vulnerable. A study of nine species, mostly marsupials of a similar size, showed that devils were more difficult for drivers to detect and avoid. At high beam, devils had the lowest detection distance, 40% closer than the median. This requires a 20% reduction in speed for a motorist to avoid the devil. For low beam, the devils had the second shortest detection distance, 16% below the median. For avoidance of roadkill to be feasible, motorists would have to drive at around half the current speed limit in rural areas.[132] A study in the 1990s on a localised population of devils in a national park in Tasmania recorded a halving of the population after a hitherto gravel access road was upgraded, surfaced with bitumen and widened. At the same time, there was a large increase in deaths caused by vehicles along the new road; there had been none in the preceding six months.[133]
The vast majority of deaths occurred in the sealed portion of the road, believed to be due to an increase in speeds.[133] It was also conjectured that the animals were harder to see against the dark bitumen instead of the light gravel. The devil and quoll are especially vulnerable as they often try to retrieve roadkill for food and travel along the road. To alleviate the problem, traffic slowing measures, man-made pathways that offer alternative routes for devils, education campaigns, and the installation of light reflectors to indicate oncoming vehicles have been implemented. They are credited with decreases in roadkill.[133] Devils have often been victims of roadkill when they are retrieving other roadkill. Work by scientist Menna Jones and a group of conservation volunteers to remove dead animals from the road resulted in a significant reduction in devil traffic deaths.[85] It was estimated that 3,392 devils, or 3.8–5.7% of the population, were being killed annually by vehicles in 2001–2004.[51] In 2009, the Save the Tasmanian Devil group launched the "Roadkill Project", which allowed members of the public to report sightings of devils which had been killed on the road.[134] On 25 September 2015, 20 immunised devils were microchipped and released in Narawntapu National Park. By 5 October four had been hit by cars, prompting Samantha Fox, leader of Save the Tasmanian Devil, to describe roadkill as being the biggest threat to the Tasmanian devil after DFTD.[135] A series of solar-powered alarms have been trialled that make noises and flash lights when cars are approaching, warning the animals. The trial ran for 18 months and the trial area had two-thirds less deaths than the control.[136][137]
Devil facial tumour disease
First seen in 1996 in Mount William in northeastern Tasmania,
Wild Tasmanian devil populations are being monitored to track the spread of the disease and to identify changes in disease prevalence. Field monitoring involves trapping devils within a defined area to check for the presence of the disease and determine the number of affected animals. The same area is visited repeatedly to characterise the spread of the disease over time. So far, it has been established that the short-term effects of the disease in an area can be severe. Long-term monitoring at replicated sites will be essential to assess whether these effects remain, or whether populations can recover.[140] Field workers are also testing the effectiveness of disease suppression by trapping and removing diseased devils. It is hoped that the removal of diseased devils from wild populations should decrease disease prevalence and allow more devils to survive beyond their juvenile years and breed.[140] In March 2017, scientists at the University of Tasmania presented an apparent first report of having successfully treated Tasmanian devils with the disease, by injecting live cancer cells into the infected devils to stimulate their immune system to recognise and fight the disease.[145]
Relationship with humans
At
It is a common belief that devils will eat humans. While they are known to eat dead bodies, there are prevalent myths that they eat living humans who wander into the bush.[151] Despite outdated beliefs and exaggerations regarding their disposition, many, although not all, devils will remain still when in the presence of a human; some will also shake nervously. They can bite and scratch out of fear when held by a human, but a firm grip will cause them to remain still.[152] Although they can be tamed, they are asocial, and are not considered appropriate as pets;[92] they have an unpleasant odour, and neither demonstrate nor respond to affection.[153]
Until recently, the devil was not studied much by academics and naturalists.[154] At the start of the 20th century, Hobart zoo operator Mary Roberts, who was not a trained scientist, was credited for changing people's attitudes and encouraging scientific interest in native animals (such as the devil) that were seen as fearsome and abhorrent, and the human perception of the animal changed.[155] Theodore Thomson Flynn was the first professor of biology in Tasmania, and carried out some research during the period around World War I.[156] In the mid-1960s, Professor Guiler assembled a team of researchers and started a decade of systematic fieldwork on the devil. This is seen as the start of modern scientific study of it.[157] However, the devil was still negatively depicted, including in tourism material.[125] The first doctorate awarded for research into the devil came in 1991.[154]
In captivity
Early attempts to breed Tasmanian devils in captivity had limited success. Mary Roberts bred a pair at
Tasmanian devils were displayed in various zoos around the world from the 1850s onwards.
In popular culture
The devil is an iconic animal within Australia, and particularly associated with Tasmania. The animal is used as the emblem of the
Tasmanian devils are popular with tourists, and the director of the Tasmanian Devil Conservation Park has described their possible extinction as "a really significant blow for Australian and Tasmanian tourism".[178] There has also been a multimillion-dollar proposal to build a giant 19 m-high, 35 m-long devil in Launceston in northern Tasmania as a tourist attraction.[179] Devils began to be used as ecotourism in the 1970s, when studies showed that the animals were often the only things known about Tasmania overseas, and suggested that they should therefore be the centrepiece of marketing efforts, resulting in some devils being taken on promotional tours.[180]
The Tasmanian devil is probably best known internationally as the inspiration for the Looney Tunes cartoon character the Tasmanian Devil, or "Taz" in 1954. Little known at the time, the loud hyperactive cartoon character has little in common with the real life animal.[181] After a few shorts between 1957 and 1964, the character was retired until the 1990s, when he gained his own show, Taz-Mania, and again became popular.[182] In 1997, a newspaper report noted that Warner Bros. had "trademarked the character and registered the name Tasmanian Devil", and that this trademark "was policed", including an eight-year legal case to allow a Tasmanian company to call a fishing lure "Tasmanian Devil". Debate followed, and a delegation from the Tasmanian government met with Warner Bros.[183] Ray Groom, the Tourism Minister, later announced that a "verbal agreement" had been reached. An annual fee would be paid to Warner Bros. in return for the Government of Tasmania being able to use the image of Taz for "marketing purposes". This agreement later disappeared.[184] In 2006, Warner Bros. permitted the Government of Tasmania to sell stuffed toys of Taz with profits funnelled into research on DFTD.[185]
See also
References
Notes
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- .
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- ^ a b Owen and Pemberton, p. 38.
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Bibliography
- Guiler, ER (1992). The Tasmanian devil. Hobart, Tasmania: St David's Park Publishing. ISBN 0-7246-2257-8.
- Figueroa, Don; Furman, Simon; Yee, Ben; Khanna, Dan M.; Guidi, Guido; Isenberg, Jake; Matere, Marcelo; Roche, Roche; Ruffolo, Rob; Williams, Simon (2008). The Transformers Beast Wars Sourcebook. San Diego, California: ISBN 978-1-60010-159-5.
- Owen, D; Pemberton, David (2005). Tasmanian Devil: A unique and threatened animal. Crows Nest, New South Wales: ISBN 978-1-74114-368-3. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- Paddle, Robert (2000). The Last Tasmanian Tiger: The History and Extinction of the Thylacine. Oakleigh, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53154-3.
- Tyndale-Biscoe, Hugh (2005). Life of marsupials. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0-643-06257-2.
Further reading
- Hesterman, H.; Jones, S. M.; Schwarzenberger, F. (2008). "Pouch appearance is a reliable indicator of the reproductive status in the Tasmanian devil and the spotted-tailed quoll". Journal of Zoology. 275 (2): 130–138. .
- McDonald-Madden, E.; Probert, W. J. M.; Hauser, C. E.; Runge, M. C.; Possingham, H. P.; Jones, M. E.; Moore, J. L.; Rout, T. M.; Vesk, P. A.; Wintle, B. A. (2010). "Active adaptive conservation of threatened species in the face of uncertainty" (PDF). Ecological Applications. 20 (5): 1476–1489. PMID 20666263.
External links
- Parks and Wildlife Tasmania – Tasmanian Devil – vocalisation, movie, FAQ (archived 21 July 2008)
- Save the Tasmanian Devil Archived 21 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Tasmanian government conservation program
- View the Tasmanian devil genome in Ensembl
- View the sarHar1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
- The Aussie Devil Ark Conservation Project