History of Crimea
The recorded history of the
In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was
During the
Following the
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence of human settlement in Crimea dates back to the Middle Paleolithic. Neanderthal remains found at Kiyik-Koba Cave have been dated to about 80,000 BP.[1] Late Neanderthal occupations have also been found at Starosele (c. 46,000 BP) and Buran Kaya III (c. 30,000 BP).[2]
Archaeologists have found some of the earliest
Proponents of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis believe Crimea did not become a peninsula until relatively recently, with the rising of the Black Sea level in the 6th millennium BC.
The beginning of the Neolithic in Crimea is not associated with agriculture, but instead with the beginning of pottery production, changes in flint tool-making technologies, and local domestication of pigs. The earliest evidence of domesticated wheat in the Crimean peninsula is from the Chalcolithic Ardych-Burun site, dating to the middle of the 4th millennium BC[6]
By the 3rd millennium BC, Crimea had been reached by the
Antiquity
Tauri and Scythians
Early
Taurians intermixed with the Scythians starting from the end of 3rd century BC were mentioned as "Tauroscythians" and "Scythotaurians" in the works of ancient Greek writers.[7][8] In Geographica, Strabo refers to the Tauri as a Scythian tribe.[9] However, Herodotus states that the Tauri tribes were geographically inhabited by the Scythians, but they are not Scythians.[10] Also, the Taurians inspired the Greek myths of Iphigenia and Orestes.
The
The Crimean Peninsula north of the Crimean Mountains was occupied by
Greek settlement
The
As the Tauri inhabited only the mountainous regions of southern Crimea, the name Taurica was originally used only for this southern part, but was later extended to refer to the whole peninsula.Greek city-states began establishing
The Persian
In 438 BC, the Archon (ruler) of Panticapaeum assumed the title of the
Roman Empire
In the 2nd century BC, the eastern part of Taurica became part of the Bosporan Kingdom, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC.
During the AD 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries, Taurica was host to Roman legions and colonists in
Throughout the later centuries, Crimea was invaded or occupied successively by the Goths (AD 250), the Huns (376), the Bulgars (4th–8th century), the Khazars (8th century).
Crimean Gothic, an East Germanic language, was spoken by the Crimean Goths in some isolated locations in Crimea until the late 18th century.[16]
Middle Ages
Rus' and Byzantium
In the 9th century CE, Byzantium established the
It became a center of slave trade. Slavs were sold to Byzantium and other places in Anatolia and the Middle East during this period.[citation needed]
In the mid-10th century, the eastern area of Crimea was conquered by Prince
Following the
During the collapse of the Byzantine state some cities fell to its creditor[
The Crimean steppe
Throughout the ancient and medieval period the interior and north of Crimea was occupied by a changing cast of invading
The Bosporan Kingdom had exercised some control of the majority of the peninsula at the height of its power, with Kievan Rus' also having some control of the interior of Crimea after the tenth century.
Mongol invasion and later medieval period
The overseas territories of
Kiev lost its hold on the Crimean interior in the early 13th century due to the
Trebizond's Perateia soon became the
In the 13th century the
In 1346 the
Crimean Khanate (1443–1783)
After
The Crimean Tatars controlled the steppes that stretched from the
After the capture of the Genoese towns, the Ottoman Sultan held Khan Meñli I Giray captive,[24] later releasing him in return for accepting Ottoman suzerainty over the Crimean Khans and allowing them rule as tributary princes of the Ottoman Empire.[23]: 78 [25] However, the Crimean Khans still had a large amount of autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, and followed the rules they thought best for them.
Crimean Tatars introduced the practice of
Slaves and freedmen formed approximately 75% of the Crimean population.[27] In 1769 a last major Tatar raid, which took place during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, saw the capture of 20,000 slaves.[28]
Tatar society
The Crimean Tatars as an ethnic group dominated the Crimean Khanate from the 15th to the 18th centuries. They descend from a complicated mixture of Turkic peoples who settled in the Crimea from the 8th century, presumably also absorbing remnants of the Crimean Goths and the Genoese. Linguistically, the Crimean Tatars are related to the Khazars, who invaded the Crimea in the mid-8th century; the Crimean Tatar language forms part of the Kipchak or Northwestern branch of the Turkic languages, although it shows substantial Oghuz influence due to historical Ottoman Turkish presence in the Crimea.
A small enclave of
Cossack incursions
In 1553–1554
Independent Khanate
In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca signed in June 1774 forced the Sublime Porte to recognize the Tatars of the Crimea as politically independent, meaning that the Crimean Khans fell under Russian influence.[23]: 176
The Crimea was the first Muslim territory to slip from the sultan's suzerainty. The Ottoman Empire's frontiers would gradually shrink, and Russia would proceed to push her frontier westwards to the Dniester.
The Khanate subsequently suffered a gradual internal collapse, particularly after a pogrom created a Russian aided exodus of Christian subjects who were overwhelmingly among the urban classes and created cities such as Mariupol.
Russian Empire (1783–1917)
Russian Annexation
On 28 December 1783 the Sublime Porte negotiated a trade agreement with the Russian diplomat Bulgakov that recognised the loss of Crimea and other territories that had been held by the Khanate.[29][30] This increased Russia's power in the Black Sea area.[31]
Crimea went through a number of administrative reforms after Russian annexation, first as the
Crimean War
The Crimean War (1853–1856), a conflict fought between the
The immediate cause of the war involved the rights of Christian minorities in Palestine, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, and Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the expansion of the Russian Empire in the preceding Russo-Turkish Wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain the balance of power in the Concert of Europe. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, had never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose" but led to a war that stood out for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery".
Following action in the Danubian Principalities and in the Black Sea, allied troops landed in Crimea in September 1854 and besieged the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet and the associated threat of potential Russian penetration into the Mediterranean. After extensive fighting throughout Crimea, the city fell on 9 September 1855. The war ended with a Russian loss in February 1856.
Late Imperial Era
The war devastated much of the economic and social infrastructure of Crimea. The Crimean Tatars had to flee from their homeland en masse, forced by the conditions created by the war, persecution, and land expropriations. Those who survived the trip, famine, and disease, resettled in Dobruja, Anatolia, and other parts of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Russian government decided to stop the process, as agriculture began to suffer due to the unattended fertile farmland. By the late 19th century, Crimean Tatars continued to form a slight plurality of Crimea's still largely rural population[34] and were the predominant portion of the population in the mountainous area and about half of the steppe population.[citation needed]
There were large numbers of
Russian Civil War (1917–1922)
Following the
Approximately 50,000 White prisoners of war and civilians were summarily executed by shooting or hanging after the defeat of General Wrangel at the end of 1920.[35] This is considered one of the largest massacres in the Civil War.[36]
Between 56,000 and 150,000 of the civilian population were then murdered as part of the Red Terror, organized by Béla Kun.[37]
Crimea changed hands several times over the course of the conflict and several political entities were set up on the peninsula. These included:
Country | Jurisdiction | Period | Details |
---|---|---|---|
Russian Revolution and Civil War (1917–1921) | Crimean People's Republic | December 1917 – January 1918 | Crimean Tatar government |
Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic | 19 March – 30 April 1918 | Bolshevik government | |
Ukrainian State | May–June 1918 | ||
First Crimean Regional Government | 25 June – 25 November 1918 | German puppet state under Lipka Tatar General Maciej (Suleyman) Sulkiewicz
| |
Second Crimean Regional Government | November 1918 – April 1919 | Anti-Bolshevik government under Crimean Karaite former Kadet member Solomon Krym | |
Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic | 2 April – June 1919 | Bolshevik government | |
South Russian Government | February 1920 – April 1920 | Government of White movement's General Anton Denikin | |
Government of South Russia | April (officially, 16 August) – 16 November 1920 | Government of White movement's General Pyotr Wrangel | |
Bolshevik Revolutionary committee government |
November 1920 – 18 October 1921 | Bolshevik government under Béla Kun (until 20 February 1921), then Mikhail Poliakov | |
Crimean Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic |
18 October 1921 – 30 June 1945 | Autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR
| |
Soviet era (1921–1991) |
Soviet Union (1922–1991)
Interbellum
Crimea became part of the
However, this did not protect the Crimean Tatars, who constituted about 25% of the Crimean population,
From 1923 until 1944 there was an effort to create Jewish settlements in Crimea. There were two attempts to establish Jewish autonomy in Crimea, but both were ultimately unsuccessful.[40]
Crimea experienced two severe famines in the 20th century, the
A large Slavic population (mainly Russians and Ukrainians) influx occurred in the 1930s as a result of the Soviet policy of regional development. These demographic changes permanently altered the ethnic balance in the region.World War II
During World War II, Crimea was a scene of some of the bloodiest battles. The leaders of the Third Reich were anxious to conquer and colonize the fertile and beautiful peninsula as part of their policy of resettling the Germans in Eastern Europe at the expense of the Slavs. In the Crimean campaign, German and Romanian troops suffered heavy casualties in the summer of 1941 as they tried to advance through the narrow Isthmus of Perekop linking Crimea to the Soviet mainland. Once the German army broke through (Operation Trappenjagd), they occupied most of Crimea, with the exception of the city of Sevastopol, which was besieged and later awarded the honorary title of Hero City after the war. The Red Army lost over 170,000 men killed or taken prisoner, and three armies (44th, 47th, and 51st) with twenty-one divisions.[42]
Sevastopol held out from October 1941 until 4 July 1942 when the Germans finally captured the city. From 1 September 1942, the peninsula was administered as the Generalbezirk Krim (general district of Crimea) und Teilbezirk (and sub-district) Taurien by the Nazi Generalkommissar
The Crimean Jews were targeted for annihilation during the Nazi occupation. According to Yitzhak Arad, "In January 1942 a company of Tatar volunteers was established in Simferopol under the command of Einsatzgruppe 11. This company participated in anti-Jewish manhunts and murder actions in the rural regions."[43] Around 40,000 Crimean Jews were murdered.[43]
The successful Crimean offensive meant that in 1944 Sevastopol came under the control of troops from the Soviet Union. The so-called "City of Russian Glory" once known for its beautiful architecture was entirely destroyed and had to be rebuilt stone by stone. Due to its enormous historical and symbolic meaning for the Russians, it became a priority for Stalin and the Soviet government to have it restored to its former glory within the shortest time possible.[44][self-published source?]
The Crimean port of Yalta hosted the Yalta Conference of Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill which was later seen as dividing Europe between the Communist and democratic spheres.
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars
On 18 May 1944, the entire population of the
The peninsula was resettled with other peoples, mainly Russians and Ukrainians. Modern experts say that the deportation was part of the Soviet
Nearly 8,000 Crimean Tatars died during the deportation, and tens of thousands perished subsequently due to the harsh exile conditions.[46] The Crimean Tatar deportation resulted in the abandonment of 80,000 households and 360,000 acres of land.
Post-World War II
The autonomous republic without its titled nationality was downgraded to
1954 transfer to Ukraine SSR
On 19 February 1954, the oblast was
Sevastopol was a closed city due to its importance as the port of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet and was attached to the Crimean Oblast only in 1978.[citation needed]
The construction of North Crimean Canal, a land improvement canal for irrigation and watering of Kherson Oblast in southern Ukraine, and the Crimean peninsula, was started in 1957 soon after the transfer of Crimea. The canal also has multiple branches throughout Kherson Oblast and the Crimean peninsula. The main project works took place between 1961 and 1971 and had three stages. The construction was conducted by the Komsomol members sent by the Komsomol travel ticket (Komsomolskaya putyovka) as part of shock construction projects and accounted for some 10,000 "volunteer" workers.
In the post-war years, Crimea thrived as a
Post-Soviet Union
Ukraine (de jure since 1991, de facto 1991–2014)
With the
Russian annexation
The
Ukraine and
According to survey carried out by Pew Research Center in 2014, the majority of Crimean residents say they believed the referendum was free and fair (91%) and that the government in Kyiv ought to recognize the results of the vote (88%).[72]
The Russian government opposes the "annexation" label, with Putin defending the referendum as complying with the principle of the self-determination of peoples.[73][74]
Aftermath
Within days of the signing of the accession treaty, the process of integrating Crimea into the Russian federation began with the
Once Ukraine lost control of the territory in 2014, it shut off the water supply of the
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Beginning in July 2022, a series of explosions and fires occurred on the
See also
- Kizil-Koba culture
- Cimmerians
- Tauri
- Scythian Neapolis
- Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea
- Chersonesus
- Bosporan Kingdom
- Kingdom of Pontus
- Crimea in the Roman era
- Akatziri
- Crimean Goths
- Crimean Tatars
- Crimean Khanate
- Khazars
- Crimean Karaites
- Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire
- Taurida Oblast
- Novorossiya Governorate
- Taurida Governorate
- Crimean War
- Crimean People's Republic
- Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic
- Crimean Regional Government
- Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic
- South Russian Government
- Government of South Russia
- Crimea in the Soviet Union
- Crimean Oblast
- Crimean ASSR (1991–1992)
- Republic of Crimea (1992–1995)
- Autonomous Republic of Crimea
Notes
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- ^ "Taurians". www.encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved 2019-02-06.
- ^ Strabo. Geographica. 7. 4. 2. "... generally speaking, the Tauri, a Scythian tribe ..."
- ^ 4.99 "Beyond this place [Carcinitis on the Ister], the country fronting the same sea is hilly and projects into the Pontus; it is inhabited by the Tauric nation as far as what is called the Rough Peninsula; and this ends in the eastern sea. For the sea to the south and the sea to the east are two of the four boundary lines of Scythia, just as seas are boundaries of Attica; and the Tauri inhabit a part of Scythia like Attica, as though some other people, not Attic, were to inhabit the heights of Sunium from Thoricus to the town of Anaphlystus, if Sunium jutted farther out into the sea. I mean, so to speak, to compare small things with great. Such a land is the Tauric country. But those who have not sailed along that part of Attica may understand from this other analogy: it is as though in Calabria some other people, not Calabrian, were to live on the promontory within a line drawn from the harbor of Brundisium to Tarentum. I am speaking of these two countries, but there are many others of a similar kind that Tauris resembles." (trans. A. D. Godley)
- ^ Minns, Ellis Hovell (1913). Scythians and Greeks: A Survey of Ancient History and Archaeology on the North Coast of the Euxine from the Danube to the Caucasus. Cambridge University Press.
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Before dawn on Feb. 27, at least two dozen heavily armed men stormed the Crimean parliament building and the nearby headquarters of the regional government, bringing with them a cache of assault rifles and rocket propelled grenades. A few hours later, Aksyonov walked into the parliament and, after a brief round of talks with the gunmen, began to gather a quorum of the chamber's lawmakers.
- ^ De Carbonnel, Alissa (13 March 2014). "RPT-INSIGHT-How the separatists delivered Crimea to Moscow". Reuters. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
Only a week after gunmen planted the Russian flag on the local parliament, Aksyonov and his allies held another vote and declared parliament was appealing to Putin to annex Crimea
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- ^ Про дострокове припинення повноважень Верховної Ради Автономної Республіки Крим [On the dissolution of the Verkhovna Rada of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea]. Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (in Ukrainian). 15 March 2014.
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- SSRN 2627417.
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Further reading
- Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. OCLC 610947243.
- Barker, W. Burckhardt (1855). A short historical Account of the Crimea, from the earliest ages and during the Russian occupation. old fashioned and anti-Russian.
- Bezverkha, Anastasia (2017). "Reinstating Social Borders between the Slavic Majority and the Tatar Population of Crimea: Media Representation of the Contested Memory of the Crimean Tatars' Deportation". Journal of Borderlands Studies. 32 (2): 127–139. S2CID 148535821.
- Cordova, Carlos. Crimea and the Black Sea: An environmental history. (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.)
- Dickinson, Sara. "Russia's First 'Orient': Characterizing the Crimea in 1787." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 3.1 (2002): 3-25. online[dead link]
- Fisher, Alan (1981). "The Ottoman Crimea in the Sixteenth Century". Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 5 (2): 135–143.
- Kent, Neil (2016). Crimea: A History. Hurst Publishers. ISBN 9781849044639.
- S2CID 162235937.
- Kirimli, Hakan. National Movements and National Identity Among the Crimean Tatars (1905 - 1916) (E.J. Brill. 1996)
- ISBN 978-0-7727-5110-2.
- Milner, Thomas. The Crimea: Its Ancient and Modern History: the Khans, the Sultans, and the Czars. Longman, 1855. online
- O'Neill, Kelly. Claiming Crimea: A History of Catherine the Great's Southern Empire (Yale University Press, 2017).
- Ozhiganov, Edward. "The Crimean Republic: Rivalries for Control." in Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives (MIT Press. 1997). pp. 83–137.
- Pleshakov, Constantine. The Crimean Nexus: Putin's War and the Clash of Civilizations (Yale University Press, 2017).
- Rywkin, Michael (1994). Moscow's Lost Empire. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. OCLC 476453248.
- Sasse, Gwendolyn. The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict (2007)
- Schonle, Andreas (2001). "Garden of the Empire: Catherine's Appropriation of the Crimea". Slavic Review. 60 (1): 1–22. S2CID 159492185.
- UN-HABITAT (2007). Housing, Land, and Property in Crimea. UN-HABITAT. ISBN 9789211319200., recent developments
- Williams, Brian Glyn. The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation (Brill 2001) online
Historiography
- Kizilov, Mikhail; Prokhorov, Dmitry. "The Development of Crimean Studies in the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and Ukraine," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (Dec 2011), Vol. 64 Issue 4, pp437–452.
Primary sources
- Neilson, Mrs. Andrew (1855). The Crimea, its towns, inhabitants and social customs, by a lady resident near the Alma.; complete text online
- Wood, Evelyn. The Crimea in 1854, and 1894: With Plans, and Illustrations from Sketches Taken on the Spot by Colonel W. J. Colville (2005) excerpt and text search