Tawhid
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Tawhid
Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of submission.[6] The first part of the Islamic declaration of faith (shahada) is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God.[4] To attribute divinity to anything or anyone else, is considered shirk—an unpardonable sin according to the Quran, unless repented afterwards.[7][8] Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of tawhid.[9]
From an Islamic standpoint, there is an uncompromising
The Quran teaches the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world—a unique, independent and indivisible being who is independent of the entire creation.[12] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one, and is an absolute who integrates all affirmative values.[7]
Islamic intellectual history can be understood as a gradual unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning and implications of professing tawhid. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it.
The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God and the unity of God.[14] Although the monotheistic definition has persisted into modern Arabic, it is now more generally used to connote "unification, union, combination, fusion; standardization, regularization; consolidation, amalgamation, merger".[15]
Chapter 112 of the Quran, titled al-Ikhlas, reads:
Say, "He is Allah—One;
Allah—the Sustainer.
He has never had offspring, nor was He born.
And there is none comparable to Him."[16]
Etymology
According to Edward Lane's Lexicon on classical Arabic, tawhid is an infinite noun that means "He asserted, or declared, God to be one; he asserted, declared, or preferred belief in the unity of God" and is derived from the Arabic verb wahhada, which means "He made it one; or called it one".[14] In modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean "to unite" or "bring together" something which was not one before. This reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism.[17][18]
Name of God in Islam
In order to explain the complexity of the unity of God and of the divine nature, the Qur'an uses 99 terms referred to as "Excellent Names of God" (7:180). The divine names project divine attributes, which, in turn, project all the levels of the creation down to the physical plane.[19] Aside from the supreme name "Allah" and the neologism ar-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that creates and maintains the universe) and a few other specific names like al-Malik al-Muluk ("King of Kings") in an authentic narration of Muhammad, other names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God's immanence rather than being a sign of one's divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God's transcendent nature. Attribution of divinity to a created entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God and thus a major sin.[12]
Shirk
Associating partners in divinity of God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid. Although the term is usually translated as "polytheism" into English, the sin is thought to be more complex.
Shirk is classified into two categories:
- al-Shirk al-akbar (Arabic: شِرْك ٱلْأَكْبَر, romanized: shirk al-akbar; lit. 'greater shirk'): open and apparent
- al-shirk al-khafi; lit. 'hidden shirk'): concealed or hidden. It is when people perform the necessary rituals but not for God but for the sake of others, including social recognition.[26] Hidden shirk might be unwitting, yet punishable, although to a lesser extent than greater forms of shirk.[27]
Chapter 4, verse 48 of the Qur'an reads:
Indeed, Allah does not forgive associating others with Him ˹in worship˺, but forgives anything else of whoever He wills. And whoever associates others with Allah has indeed committed a grave sin.
Chapter 4, verse 116 of the Qur'an reads:
Surely Allah does not forgive associating ˹others˺ with Him ˹in worship˺, but forgives anything else of whoever He wills. Indeed, whoever associates ˹others˺ with Allah has clearly gone far astray.
Discerning the unity of God
Part of Jalla Jalālah in Arabic calligraphy |
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According to
Ali states that "God is One" means that God is away from likeness and numeration and he is not divisible even in imagination.[29]
The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord... The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person.[30]
Vincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:
To know God is to know his unification. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say "God is one" and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, "So-and-So is one of his people", namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that "God is one" in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that "God is one" in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.[12]
The perception of tawhid laid the foundation of Muslim ethics.[31] According to Islam, the world is sustained by God as the ultimate reality, unique in his attributes, distinct from everything else.[32] Tawhid denies any affinity between the creator and its creation. This includes that invisible entities (jinn) do not partake in creation but are created; rejection of an avatar or offspring of God; or a partner in creation in form of a sibling or wife.[33] The uniqueness of the creator is expressed in the Daily Prayer's (ṣalāh) phrase Allāhu ʾakbar (Takbīr).
Arguments for the oneness of God
Theological
Theologians usually use reason and deduction to prove the existence, unity and oneness of God. They use a teleological argument for the existence of God as a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction—or some combination of these—in nature. Teleology is the supposition that there is a purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.[34]
Another argument which is used frequently by theologians is Reductio ad absurdum. They use it instead of positive arguments as a more efficient way to reject the ideas of opponents.[35]
God as the cause of causes
Against the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia, the Qur'an argues that the knowledge of God as the creator of everything rules out the possibility of lesser gods since these beings must be themselves created. For the Qur'an, God is an immanent and transcendent deity who actively creates, maintains and destroys the universe. The reality of God as the ultimate cause of things is the belief that God is veiled from human understanding because of the secondary causes and contingent realities of things in the world.[12] Thus the belief in the oneness of God is equated in the Qur'an with the "belief in the unseen" (2:3).[12] The Qur'an summarizes its task in making this "unseen", to a greater or lesser degree "seen" so that belief in the existence of God becomes a Master-Truth rather than an unreasonable belief. The Qur'an states that God's signals are so near and yet so far, demanding that its students listen to what it has to say with humility (50:33, 50:37). The Qur'an draws attention to certain observable facts, to present them as "reminders" of God instead of providing lengthy "theological" proofs for the existence and unity of God.[36]
God as the necessary existent
An
This was the first attempt at using the method of
According to Avicenna, the universe consists of a chain of actual beings, each giving existence to the one below it and responsible for the existence of the rest of the chain below. Because an actual infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple and one, whose essence is its very existence, and therefore is self-sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence. Because its existence is not contingent on or necessitated by something else but is necessary and eternal in itself, it satisfies the condition of being the necessitating cause of the entire chain that constitutes the eternal world of contingent existing things.[41] Thus his ontological system rests on the conception of God as the Wajib al-Wujud (necessary existent). There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as a result of his self-knowledge.[44][45]
Indivisibility of God's sovereignty
The Qur'an argues that there can be no multiple sources of divine sovereignty since "behold, each god would have taken away what [each] had created, And some would have Lorded it over others!"[7] The Qur'an argues that the stability and order prevailing throughout the universe shows that it was created and is being administered by only one God (28:70-72).[6][46]
The Qur'an in verse 21:22 states: "Had there been within them [i.e., the heavens and earth] gods besides Allāh, they both would have been ruined". Later Muslim theologians elaborated on this verse saying that the existence of at least two gods would inevitably arise between them, at one time or another, a conflict of wills. Since two contrary wills could not possibly be realized at the same time, one of them must admit himself powerless in that particular instance. On the other hand, a powerless being can not by definition be a god. Therefore, the possibility of having more than one god is ruled out.[6][46] For if a God is powerful above another, then this asserts a difference in the particular attributes that are confined to the essence of Godhood, which implies the lesser God must lack in certain necessary attributes deeming this deity as anthropomorphic and snatching away the title of a god from such entity.
Other arguments
The Qur'an argues that human beings have an instinctive distaste for polytheism: At times of crisis, for example, even the idolaters forget the false deities and call upon the one true God for help. As soon as they are relieved from the danger, they however start associating other beings with God. "If they happen to be aboard a ship ˹caught in a storm˺, they cry out to Allah ˹alone˺ in sincere devotion. But as soon as He delivers them ˹safely˺ to shore, they associate ˹others with Him once again˺." (29:65).[46]
Next, the Qur'an argues that polytheism takes away from human dignity: God has honored human beings and given them charge of the physical world, and yet they disgrace their position in the world by worshipping what they carve out with their own hands.[46]
Lastly, the Qur'an argues that monotheism is not a later discovery made by the human race, but rather there is the combined evidence of the prophetic call for monotheism throughout human history starting from
Interpretations
Understanding of the meaning of Tawhid is one of the most controversial issues among Muslims. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, comprising
approach. These different approaches lead to different and in some cases opposite understanding of the issue.Theological viewpoints
This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2020) |
Certain theologians use the term Tawhid in a much broader meaning to denote the totality of discussion of God, his existence and his various attributes. Others go yet further and use the term to ultimately represent the totality of the "principles of religion". In its current usage, the expressions "Tawhid" or "knowledge of Tawhid" are sometimes used as an equivalent for the whole
According to Sunni Islam, the orthodox understanding of theology is taken directly from the teachings of Muhammad with the understanding and methodology of his companions, sourced directly from the revealed scripture the
Athari/Salafi approach
The approach of textual interpretation in Islam is to avoid delving into theological speculation and did not employ the use of kalam.[49]
Additional to the first meaning of tawhid (Rubūbīyah (Lordship)) all Sunnis agree upon, Salafism holds two additional meanings: Al-Asma wa's-Sifat (names and attributes) and Al-'Ibadah (worship). Al-Asma wa's-Sifat includes lordship in the form of a legislator. By this, Salafis consider a legislation not based on (its own) interpretation of sharia to be a form of polytheism.[50] Al-'Ibadah is furthermore understood to mean that everyday acts must be in accordance with sharia. Doing something else would imply accepting another authority or object of desire besides God.
The Salafi specific features of tawhid tend to elide the sovereignty and uniqueness of God.[50] For this reason, other Sunnis disagree with these two features, as they regard it as comparing God to a created object ascribed some power to.[51]
Mu'tazili school
The Mu'tazilis liked to call themselves the people of the tawhid (ahl al-tawhid). In Maqalat al-Islamiyin,
God is unique, nothing is like him; he is neither body, nor individual, nor substance, nor accident. He is beyond time. He cannot dwell in a place or within a being; he is not the object of any creatural attribute or qualification. He is neither conditioned nor determined, neither engendered nor engendering. He is beyond the perception of the senses. The eyes cannot see him, observation cannot attain him, the imagination cannot comprehend him. He is a thing, but he is not like other things; he is omniscient, all-powerful, but his omniscience and his all-mightiness cannot be compared to anything created. He created the world without any pre-established archetype and without an auxiliary.
According to
Ash'ari school
The solution proposed by
Twelvers theology
Twelvers theology is based on the
Twelvers believe God is alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, his theophanies. The totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a being next to or above other beings, his creatures; he is being, the absolute act of being (wujud mutlaq). For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique, i.e., the only one to be.[60] As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible.[61] The border between theoretical Tawhid and Shirk is to know that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness), it is Tawhid. Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God's permission as Quran points to it. The border between the Tawhid and Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, not as a road to God (to Him-ness).[62]
Philosophical viewpoints
َWhether this view can be reconciled with Islam, particularly given the question of what role is left for God's will, was to become a subject of considerable controversy within intellectual Islamic discourse.
Sufi and Irfani viewpoint
In Islamic mysticism (
For Muslim mystics (
Annihilation and subsistence
According to the concept of Fana, Annihilation and Subsistence, "Man's existence, or ego, or self-hood ... must be annihilated so that he can attain to his true self which is his existence and "subsistence" with God. All of man's character traits and habits, everything that pertains to his individual existence must become completely naughted and "obliterated" (mahw). Then God will give back to him his character traits and everything positive he ever possessed. But at this stage, he will know consciously and actually - not just theoretically - and with a through spiritual realization, that everything he is derives absolutely from God. He is nothing but a ray of God's Attributes manifesting the Hidden Treasure."[66]
Unity of existence
The first detailed formulation of "Unity of Existence" (wahdat al-wujud) is closely associated to Ibn Arabi.[67] Widely different interpretations of the meaning of the "Unity of Existence" have been proposed throughout the centuries by critics, defenders, and Western scholars. Ibn Arabi himself did not use the term "Unity of Existence" and similar statements had been made by those before him. For example, according to al-Ghazali "There is nothing in wujud [existence] except God...Wujud [Existence] only belongs to the Real One". Ghazali explains that the fruit of spiritual ascent of the Sufi is to "witness that there is no existence in the world save God and that 'All things are perishing except his face' (Qur'an 28:88)" [68][69]
Many authors consider being or existence to be the proper designation for the reality of God. While all Muslims believe the reality of God to be one, critics hold that the term "existence" (wujud) is also used for the existence of things in this world and that the doctrine blurs the distinction between the existence of the creator and that of the creation. Defenders argued that Ibn Arabi and his followers are offering a "subtle metaphysics following the line of the Asharite formula: "The attributes are neither God nor other than God." God's "signs" (ayat) and "traces" (athar)—the creatures—are neither the same as God nor different from him, because God must be understood as both absent and present, both transcendent and immanent. Understood correctly, wahdat al-wujud elucidates the delicate balance that needs to be maintained between these two perspectives."[69] Shah Wali Allah of Delhi argued that the Ibn Arabi's "unity of being" was experiential and based on a subjective experience of illumination or ecstasy, rather than an ontological reality.[70]
Utterance of I or considering oneself as in power separate from God, is a form of idolatry for many Sufis. In the metaphysical cosmology of Sufism, God's sovereignty is a necessity instead of an accident. Therefore, it is impossible to worship something else but God. By venerating the self, one worships God in the name of Jalal (majesty). This name is supposed to be worshipped and then transmitted by Iblis (Satan). Since it is impossible for two majesties to coexist, one cannot participate in divine intimacy or mercy and will also be subject to God's wrath.[71][72]
Influences on the Muslim culture
The Islamic doctrine of Tawhid puts forth a God whose rule, will or law are comprehensive and extend to all creatures and to all aspects of the human life. Early Muslims understood religion to thus cover the domains of state, law and society.[73] It is believed that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.[9] In the following, we provide a few examples of the influences of Tawhid on the Muslim culture:
Interpersonal relationship
According to the Qur'an, one consequence of properly conceived relationship between God and man as the served and servant, is the proper relationship among humans. In order to achieve the former, the Qur'an consistently "reminds" men of two points: 1. That God is one; everything except God (including the entirety of nature) is contingent upon God. 2. With all His might and glory, God is essentially the all-merciful God.[74]
Good and evil
According to the Qur'an, God is the progenitor of all things, both good and evil.[75] As is written in the Qur'an, all of humanity is created at the will of Allah, both the good and the evil; and that their natures have been predisposed as such since the beginning of creation.[76][77]
According to the Qur'an, Satan deviated from the unification of God in the story of
Secularism
In many jurisdictions of the world, the laws and the general attitude of the population hold that the sphere of public life should be secular,[citation needed] and that belief in and practice of religion should remain in the sphere of private life.[citation needed] One motive for adopting this stance has been to reduce the effects of conflict between followers of different religions or between adherents of secularism and those of a religion.[citation needed] In public life, this view insists that the authority of the state prevails over any religious authorities.
For some Islamic thinkers, these propositions infringe the doctrine of Tawhid, and are therefore anathema. If the cosmos is a unified and harmonious whole, centered around the omnipotent and omnipresent God, they hold that recognising any other authority as superior is wrong. According to one writer: "Traditionally, a Muslim is not a nationalist, or citizen of a nation-state; he has no political identity, only a religious membership in the Umma. For a traditional Muslim, Islam is the sole and sufficient identification tag and nationalism and nation-states are obstacles".[79] Hence the idea of creating a wholly Islamic state, or a revived caliphate.
In practice, nearly all Muslims[citation needed] live their daily lives under some national jurisdiction and accept at least part of the constraints this involves.[citation needed]
Islamic art
The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque.[73]
See also
References
Notes
Citations
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- ^ . استدلال بر توحيد، مسبوق به پذيرش وجود خداست و طبعاً در صورتبندی آن، غالباً مواجهه با مدعيان و معتقدان به دو يا چند خدا در نظر بوده و نظريه ثنويها و مجوس و نصارا ابطال میشده است. به همين سبب از قديمترين زمان، متكلمان برای دفاع از آموزه توحيد و اثبات آن، احتجاج به روش خُلف را كارآمدتر از ارائه ادله اثباتی میدانستهاند. آنان بيشترِ دلايل توحيد را با اين رويكرد ارائه كرده اند. توحيد در كلام Archived 2009-02-03 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia Islamica
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Further reading
- Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". Fordham International Law Journal. 27: 195. Archived from the original on 2022-07-09. Retrieved 2022-04-28.
- Banani Amin, co ed.: Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh (1994), Poetry and Mysticism in Islam: The Heritage of Rumi, ISBN 0-521-45476-X
- ISBN 978-0-292-70904-1.
- ISBN 978-0-710-30416-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-07-09. Retrieved 2020-05-30.
- ISBN 0-87395-724-5
- ISBN 1-84511-320-9
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