Taxila

Coordinates: 33°44′45″N 72°47′15″E / 33.74583°N 72.78750°E / 33.74583; 72.78750
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Taxila (modern)
)

"Takshasila" redirects here. For other uses, see Taxila (disambiguation). For the 1995 Indian film, see Thakshashila.
Taxila
ٹيکسلا
UTC+5:00 (PKT)
Postal code
47080
Dialing code596
Criteriaiii, vi
Designated1980
Reference no.139

Taxila or Takshashila (

Pali: Takkasilā; Ashokan Prakrit: 𑀢𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸, Takkhasilā; Greek: Τάξιλα, Táxila)[2] is a city in the Pothohar region of Punjab, Pakistan. Located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District, it lies approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and is just south of the Haripur District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
.

Old Taxila was for a time the capital city of

Sir John Marshall. In 1980, UNESCO designated Taxila as a World Heritage Site.[4]

By some accounts, the University of ancient Taxila is considered to be one of the earliest universities or education centre in South Asia.[5][6][7][8][9] Other scholars do not consider it to have been a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in the city. In a 2010 report, the Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites that were "on the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and armed conflict as primary threats.[10] However, significant preservation efforts have since been carried out by the Pakistani government, which has resulted in the site's recategorization as "well-preserved" by different international publications.[11] Because of the extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, Taxila is one of Punjab's popular tourist spots, attracting up to one million tourists every year.[11][12]

Etymology

Heliodorus Pillar inscription, circa 100 BCE[13]

In ancient times, Taxila was known as Takṣaśilā in Sanskrit (per IAST) and as Takkhasilā in Pali. The city's Sanskrit name translates to "City of Cut Stone" or "Rock of Taksha" in reference to a story in the Ramayana that states that the city was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of the Hindu deity Rama, and named in honour of Bharata's son, Taksha.[14]

The city's modern name, however, is derived from the ancient Greek rendering[14][15] noted in Ptolemy's Geography.[16] The Greek-language transcription of Taxila became universally favoured over time, and both the Sanskrit and Pali names fell out of use.

Gautama Buddha had offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of the Taxila Valley is called Margala (lit. 'cut-off throat').[17]

In traditional sources

In Vedic texts such as the

Shvetaketu each had received their education.[18]

One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is in Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī,[19] a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.

Much of the

Naimisha Forest from where the story was further disseminated.[20] The Kuru Kingdom's heir, Parikshit (grandson of Arjuna) is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila.[21]

The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama. Bharata, who also founded nearby Pushkalavati, installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities.[22]

In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and a great centre of learning with world-famous teachers.

Avadanakalpalata, is another king associated with the city.[22]

In the

Tirthankaras, visited Taxila millions of years ago. His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a dharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference.[22]

History

Early settlement

The region around Taxila was settled by the Neolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 1000 BCE.[26][27] Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 1300 BCE[26] have also been discovered in the Taxila area,[27] though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found at Sarai Khola, located 2 km to the south-west of Taxila Museum, where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and a distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface.[28]

Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However, Kot Diji-style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking a clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.[28]

Gandhāra kingdom

Main article: Gandhāra (kingdom)

Puṣkalāvatī.[32]

Later, Taxila was inhabited at Bhir Mound, dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware.[33]

Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire

Achaemenid Empire

See also:
Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley

Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during the rule of the Persian

Persia via the Bolan Pass. The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century.[35]

Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state.[36][37]

Hellenistic

See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
A map of Alexander's campaign in ancient India.

During his invasion of the

Omphis (Āmbhi).[35] Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed".[35] Arrian writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated a gymnastic and equestrian contest there.[39]

On Alexander's death, in 323 BCE, the province and much of the once Achaemenid territories would pass to his general Seleucus I Nicator and founder of the successor Seleucid Empire.

Mauryan Empire

By 303 BCE, the Seleucid Empire's satraps in South Asia had been formally annexed by the expanding Mauryan empire, following the Seleucid–Mauryan war,[40] with the provincial capital and center of higher education at of Taxila now under the control of Chandragupta Maurya. His advisor, Kautilya/Chanakya, was said to have taught at Taxila's university.[41] Under the reign of Ashoka the Great, Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time.[42]

Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient

Kāpiśa.[43]
Taxila thus changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control.

Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Indo-Parthian Kingdoms

In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the

Kharoṣṭhī
.

The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief Maues around 90 BCE.[45] Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital.[46] According to early Christian legend, Thomas the Apostle visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE,[47] possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city.

Kushan Empire

Around the year 50 CE, the Greek

Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer, Philostratus, writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to Nineveh. Modern archaeology confirms this description.[48] Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that the city had come under Kushan rule by that time, after the city was captured from the Parthians by Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire.[49] The great Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded Sirsukh
, the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila.

Gupta Empire

In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city.[50][51]

Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE.

Buddha "where he gave his head to a man".[53]

Decline

The

Hephthalite Empire are known to have invaded Taxila in c. 450 CE. Though repelled by the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta, the city would not recover- probably on account of the strong Hunnic presence in the area, breakdown of trade as well as the three-way war among Persia, the Kidarite State, and the Huns in Western Gandhara
.

The

White Huns and Alchon Huns swept over Gandhāra and Punjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries and stupas, a blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished [54] after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled by Mihirakula. Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites, monasteries and Hindu temples across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[55][56]

Trilochanpala.[57][58]

Al-Usaifan's king during the reign of

Al-Biladhuri and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors.[59][60]

Centre of learning

A view over the ruins of Sirkap.
Main article: Ancient higher-learning institutions

By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest)

Nalanda university in eastern India.[65][66][14]

Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of

Historical Vedic Religion and Buddhism) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual suzerainty" over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education.[62] Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.[67] Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as Kashi, Kosala and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects.[68][69]

Notable students and teachers

Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as

Classical Sanskrit, has also been part of the community at Taxila.[73]

The institution is significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the

Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism took shape there.[74] Jīvaka, the court physician of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila.[75]

No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.[76]

Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned[

Gurudakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation.[78]

Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies[citation needed]. The process of teaching was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next[citation needed]. No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious.[76]

Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until the age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines.[79]

Ruins

The Dharmarajika Stupa

The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by

Naturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on the Haro river, two days march from the Indus. Alexander Cunningham, the founder and the first director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India, noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang, the 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct.[80]

Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey from Takhshasila [

Manikyala tope, twenty eight monasteries, and nine temples.

— Alexander Cunningham, [81]

Taxila's archaeological sites lie near

modern Taxila about 35 km (22 mi) northwest of the city of Rawalpindi.[14] The sites were first excavated by John Marshall, who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913.[82]

Panorama of the Jaulian monastery

The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE at Sarai Kala.

Dharmarajika stupa, the Jaulian monastery, and the Mohra Muradu
monastery.

The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's

Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh, which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar
).

World Heritage Site

Taxila was designated a

UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes a number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh.[83] They number 18 in all:[84]

  1. Khanpur Cave
  2. Saraikala, prehistoric mound
  3. Bhir Mound
  4. Sirkap (fortified city)
  5. Sirsukh (fortified ruined city)
  6. Dharmarajika stupa and monastery
  7. Khader Mohra (Akhuri)
  8. Kalawan group of buildings
  9. Giri complex of monuments
  10. Kunala stupa and monastery
  11. Jandial complex
  12. Lalchak and Badalpur Buddhist stuppa
  13. Mohra Moradu stupa and monastery
  14. Pippala stupa and monastery
  15. Jaulian stupa and monastery
  16. Lalchak mounds
  17. Buddhist remains around Bhallar stupa
  18. Giri Mosque and tombs

In a 2010 report,

Swat Valley.[85]

Geography

Taxila is located 32 km (20 mi) north-west of the Pakistani capital Islamabad. The city is located approximately 549 metres (1,801 ft) above sea level.

Climate

Taxila features a

Köppen: Cwa)[86]

Climate data for Taxila
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 17
(63) 		19.5
(67.1) 		24.2
(75.6) 		29.9
(85.8) 		35.4
(95.7) 		39.5
(103.1) 		35.8
(96.4) 		33.7
(92.7) 		33.6
(92.5) 		30.9
(87.6) 		25
(77) 		19.3
(66.7) 		28.7
(83.6)
Daily mean °C (°F) 9.8
(49.6) 		12.5
(54.5) 		17.3
(63.1) 		22.6
(72.7) 		27.6
(81.7) 		32
(90) 		30.3
(86.5) 		28.6
(83.5) 		27.6
(81.7) 		22.7
(72.9) 		16.2
(61.2) 		11.3
(52.3) 		21.5
(70.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.7
(36.9) 		5.5
(41.9) 		10.4
(50.7) 		15.3
(59.5) 		19.9
(67.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		24.8
(76.6) 		23.6
(74.5) 		21.6
(70.9) 		14.5
(58.1) 		7.5
(45.5) 		3.3
(37.9) 		14.5
(58.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 58
(2.3) 		56
(2.2) 		68
(2.7) 		44
(1.7) 		38
(1.5) 		37
(1.5) 		237
(9.3) 		236
(9.3) 		92
(3.6) 		23
(0.9) 		16
(0.6) 		36
(1.4) 		941
(37)
Source: Climate-Data.org, altitude: 497m[86]

Economy

Tourism

UNESCO World Heritage Site
, date from as early as 1000 BCE, and are a major tourist draw.

Taxila is one of northern Pakistan's most important tourist destinations and is home to the

Pakistani Army
against radical Islamist militants.

In 2017, the Pakistani government announced its intention to develop Taxila into a site for Buddhist religious pilgrimage.

Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation also announced in 2017 that a tour bus service would be launched between the Taxila Museum and Islamabad.[91]

In addition to the ruins of ancient Taxila, relics of

Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, is a monument from the British era that welcomes travelers arriving from Rawalpindi/Islamabad
.

Industry

Taxila is home to

Wah Cantt, which employs 27,000 people. Cottage and household industries include stoneware, pottery and footwear. Heavy Mechanical Complex
is also located in Taxila city.

Transportation

Rail

Taxila is served by the

Southern Xinjiang Railway in Kashgar, as part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
.

Road

M-1 Motorway, pictured near Taxila, links the city to Islamabad and Peshawar
.

The ancient Grand Trunk Road is designated as N-5 National Highway, and connects the city to the Afghan border, and northern Punjab. The Karakoram Highway's southern terminus is in nearby Hasan Abdal, and connects Taxila to the Chinese border near the Hunza Valley.

The city is linked to

M-4 Motorway
.

Air

The nearest airport to Taxila is Islamabad International Airport located 36.5 kilometers away. Peshawar's Bacha Khan International Airport is 155 kilometers away.

Education

University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila is a local branch of the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

Taxila is home to many secondary educational institutes including

CIIT Wah Campus, and HITEC University. The University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila was established in 1975 as a campus of the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
, and offers bachelor, master, and doctoral degrees in engineering.

Ancient ruins

Main article:
Taxila (ancient)

The

Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh, which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar
).

Culture

Modern Taxila is a mix of relatively wealthy urban, and poorer rural environs. Urban residential areas are general in the form of planned housing colonies populated by workers of the heavy mechanical complex & heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.

Museums

Taxila Museum has one of the most significant and comprehensive collections of stone Buddhist sculpture from the first to the seventh centuries in Pakistan (known as Gandharan art. The core of the collection comes from excavated sites in the Taxila Valley, particularly the excavations of Sir John Marshall. Other objects come from excavated sites elsewhere in Gandhara, from donations such as the Ram Das Collection, or from material confiscated by the police and customs authorities.

Further information: Taxila Tehsil
philosopher (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Woman with smile (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Man with moustache
(Sirkap, stratum 5)

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Administrative Units" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
  2. Heliodorus Pillar
    inscription, circa 100 BCE.
  3. ISBN 052128550X
  4. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Site, 1980. Taxila: Multiple Locations. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
  5. ISBN 978-0-415-36166-8
    .
  6. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004:

    "In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."
  7. ^ Balakrishnan Muniapan, Junaid M. Shaikh (2007), "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India", World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development 3 (1):

    "Kautilya was also a Professor of Politics and Economics at Taxila University. Taxila University is one of the oldest known universities in the world and it was the chief learning centre in ancient India."
  8. suzerainty
    over the wide world of letters in India."
  9. ^ Mookerji 1989, p. 479:

    "This shows that Taxila was a seat not of elementary, but higher, education, of colleges or a university as distinguished from schools."
  10. ^ a b "Global Heritage in the Peril: Sites on the Verge". Global Heritage Fund. Archived from the original on 20 August 2012.
  11. ^ a b Raheela Nazir (12 May 2018). "Feature: Pakistan in efforts to rejuvenate Taxila, one of most important archaeological sites in Asia". XINHUANET.com. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  12. ^ "Taxila: an illustration of fascinating influences of multiple civilisations". Daily Times. 13 May 2018.
  13. ^ Rapson, E. J. (1914). Ancient India. p. 157.
  14. ^ a b c d e f "Taxila, ancient city, Pakistan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
  15. ISBN 9780674915251
    .
  16. ^ J. W. McCrindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch and Justin, Westminster, Constable, 1893, pp.343–344.
  17. ^ Saifur Rahman Dar. "Antiquity, Meaning and Origin of the Name Takshashila or Taxila". The Panjab Past and Present. 11 (2): 11.
  18. ^ Raychaudhuri, Hem Chandra (1923), Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty, Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta, pp. 17–18, 25–26
  19. ^ Scharfe 2002a, pp. 140–141.
  20. ^ Davis 2014, p. 38.
  21. ^ Kosambi 1975, p. 126.
  22. ^ a b c Marshall 2013, p. 10.
  23. ^ Scharfe 2002b, p. 142.
  24. ^ Malalasekera 1937, Telapatta Jātaka (No.96):

    "The Bodhisatta was once the youngest of one hundred sons of the king of Benares. He heard from the Pacceka Buddhas, who took their meals in the palace, that he would become king of Takkasilā if he could reach it without falling a prey to the ogresses who waylaid travellers in the forest. Thereupon, he set out with five of his brothers who wished to accompany him. On the way through the forest the five in succession succumbed to the charms of the ogresses, and were devoured. One ogress followed the Bodhisatta right up to the gates of Takkasilā, where the king took her into the palace, paying no heed to the Bodhisatta's warning. The king succumbed to her wiles, and, during the night, the king and all the inhabitants of the palace were eaten by the ogress and her companions. The people, realising the sagacity and strength of will of the Bodhisatta, made him their king."
  25. ^ Appleton 2016, pp. 23, 82.
  26. ^ a b "Taxila – Once a Great Centre Of Buddhist Civilization | Tourism Department Punjab". tourism.punjab.gov.pk. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  27. ^ a b c Allchin & Allchin 1988, p. 127.
  28. ^ a b Petrie, Cameron, (2013). "Taxila", in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.), History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC, Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 654.
  29. ^ Allchin & Allchin 1988, p. 314: "The first city of Taxila at Hathial goes back at least to c. 1000 B.C."
  30. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Taxila". whc.unesco.org.
  31. ^ Scharfe 2002a, p. 141.
  32. ISBN 9971693720
    , citing Allchin: 1980
  33. ^ Petrie, Cameron, (2013). "Taxila", in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.), History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC, Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 656.
  34. ^ "Darius the Great - 8. Travels - Livius". www.livius.org.
  35. ^ a b c Marshall 1951, p. 83.
  36. ISBN 9780875868592
    .
  37. ^ Marshall 1951, pp. 16–17, 30, 71.
  38. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, § T602.8
  39. ^ Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, § 5.8
  40. ^ Mookerji 1988, p. 31.
  41. ^ Mookerji 1988, pp. 22, 54.
  42. ^ Thapar 1997, p. 52.
  43. ^ Thapar 1997, p. 237.
  44. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 75.
  45. ^ Marshall 1951, p. 84.
  46. ^ Marshall 1951, p. 85.
  47. ^ Medlycott 1905, Chapter: The Apostle and Gondophares the Indian King.
  48. ^ Marshall 2013, pp. 28–30, 69, 88–89.
  49. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 80.
  50. ^ Kumar, Sanjeev (2017). Treasures of the Gupta Empire - A Catalogue of Coins of the Gupta Dynasty.
  51. ^ Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar
  52. ^ a b Needham 2005, p. 135.
  53. ^ A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hsien of his Travels in India and Ceylon in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline, Chapter 11
  54. ^ Marshall 1951, p. 86.
  55. ^ Li Rongxi (1996), The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 97–100
  56. ISBN 978-0-674-97527-9
    .
  57. ISBN 9781107615441
    .
  58. ^ Elizabeth Errington; Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis. Persepolis to the Punjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. British Museum Press. p. 134.
  59. ^ The Panjab Past and Present - Volume 11 - Page 18
  60. ^ Pakistan Journal of History and Culture - Volumes 4-5 - Page 11
  61. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 157.
  62. ^ a b Mookerji 1989, pp. 478–479.
  63. ^ Altekar 1965, p. 109:

    "It may be observed at the outset that Taxila did not possess any colleges or university in the modern sense of the term."
  64. Jātaka
    stories about the students and teachers of Takshaśilā, but not a single episode even remotely suggests that the different 'world renowned' teachers living in that city belonged to a particular college or university of the modern type."
  65. ^ "Nalanda" (2007). Encarta.
  66. ^ "Nalanda" (2001). Columbia Encyclopedia.
  67. ^ a b Mookerji 1989, pp. 478–489.
  68. ^ Prakash 1964, p. [page needed]:

    "Students from Magadha traversed the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of Taxila. We learn from Pali texts that Brahmana youths, Khattiya princes and sons of setthis from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Taxila for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts."
  69. ^ Apte, p. 9.
  70. ^ "Kautilya". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 January 2008.
  71. ^ Mookerji 1988, p. 17.
  72. ^ "A Note on Ancient History". Takshila Institute. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  73. ^ Prakash 1964, p. [page needed]:

    "Pāṇini and Kautilya, two masterminds of ancient times, were also brought up in the academic traditions of Taxila"
  74. ^ Gupta, Aryan. "Taxila and Mahayana Buddhism". School near Heart.
  75. ^ Prakash 1964, p. [page needed]:

    "Likewise, Jivaka, the famous physician of Bimbisara who cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under a far-famed teacher at Taxila and on his return was appointed court-physician at Magadha. Another illustrious product of Taxila was the enlightened ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, who is intimately associated with the events of the time of the Buddha."
  76. ^ a b Apte, pp. 9–10.
  77. ^ Apte, pp. 16–17.
  78. ^ Apte, pp. 18–19.
  79. ^ Apte, p. 11.
  80. ^ Singh, Upinder 2008, p. 265.
  81. ^ Cunningham 1871, p. 105.
  82. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34896. Retrieved 4 July 2017. (Subscription or UK public library membership
    required.)
  83. ^ "Taxila". UNESCO. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  84. ^ "Taxila Map". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
  85. ^ "Thailand to provide assistance for restoration of Ghandhara Archelogical [sic] sites". The Nation. 16 January 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  86. ^ a b "Climate: Taxila – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
  87. ^ "Tourism industry picking up as law and order situation improved". Aaj TV. 24 January 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  88. ^ "PTDC to organize Buddhists' conference to promote tourism". Pakistan Today. 11 March 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  89. ^ "Pakistan to organise Buddhism heritage exhibition in Thailand". Geo News. 13 March 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  90. ^ "As China Pushes for a 'Buddhist' Globalisation, India Isn't Making the Most of Its Legacy". The Wire. 11 May 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  91. ^ "Double decker tourist buses to be run in twin cities: PTDC". Daily Times. 2 January 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Taxila.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Taxila.
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