Temporal power of the Holy See

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Papal tiara of Pope Pius IX, the last pope to have reigned over the Papal States.
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The

secular influence, as distinguished from its spiritual and pastoral activity, while the pope ruled the Papal States in central Italy
.

The Papal States ceased to exist following the capture of Rome in 1870 by the Royal Italian Army, after which its remaining territories were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 later established the Vatican City, a small city-state where the Holy See currently exercises temporal powers.

Origins

Main article: Papal States
Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) in his papal tiara, which he claimed as signifying both his spiritual and (indirect)[1] temporal power.
Papal coronation of Pope Celestine V

Patrimony of Saint Peter

The Lateran Palace was the first significant acquisition of the Church, most probably a gift from Constantine the Great. The example of Constantine was followed by wealthy families of the Roman nobility,[2] Sometimes designated as the Patrimonium Sancti Petri, it was not a separate state, but still subject to the emperor in Byzantium.

iconoclastic controversy (726 AD) in the Byzantine Empire, widened the growing divergence between the Byzantine and Carolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church. This, combined with Lombard military pressure that the embattled empire could not respond effectively to, eventually led to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. The Duchy of Rome was an imperial territory under the Exarchate of Ravenna
. With the waning of Byzantine control in Italian peninsula, more of the management of the area fell to the popes.

Donation of Pepin

In 751 the Exarchate of Ravenna fell to Lombard King Aistulf. Five years later, Pepin the Short of the Franks defeated the Lombards and granted the lands of the Duchy of Rome as well as territory ceased by the Lombards to the Papacy in what is referred to as the Donation of Pepin, marking the true beginning of the Papal States. The area conferred upon the pope included the territory belonging to Ravenna, even cities such as Forlì with their hinterlands, the Lombard conquests in the Romagna and in the Duchy of Spoleto and Benevento, and the Pentapolis (the "five cities" of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Senigallia and Ancona). Narni and Ceccano were former papal territories.[3] However, the medieval Popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over these extensive and mountainous territories, given the recalcitrance of their vassals.

For over a thousand years popes ruled as

Italian peninsula known as the Papal States, from the capital, Rome.[4] In 1274 the Comtat Venaissin came under Papal control, followed by Avignon in 1348.[5]

Early modern period

Theologian

Disputationes strongly affirmed the authority of the pope as the vicar of Christ. However, he reasoned that since Christ did not exercise his temporal power, neither may the pope.[6]

In 1590,

Urban VII, asked for an examination and after it was done Bellarmine was exonerated and the book removed from the Index.[7][8]

Concerning the pastoral and spiritual power of the pope, Bellarmine's "Disputationes, 3 vol. (1586–93), and De potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus (1610; "Concerning the Power of the Supreme Pontiff in Temporal Matters") gave definite form to the theory of papal supremacy."[9]

19th century

The secular revolutionary movements of the 1800s posed a serious threat to the pope's temporal power. Avignon was seized by revolutionaries during the

Great powers at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in the 1815 Congress of Vienna. The civil laws of the Napoleonic Code were abolished, and most civil servants were removed from office. In the coming years, rising liberal and nationalist sentiment created popular opposition to the reconstituted clerical government. This led to numerous revolts, which were suppressed by the intervention of the Austrian army.[10]

In November 1848, during the 1848 Revolutions that swept Europe, the assassination of his minister Pellegrino Rossi led Pope Pius IX to flee Rome. During a political rally in February 1849, a young heretic, the Abbé Arduini, described the temporal power of the popes as a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality."[11]

On 9 February 1849, a revolutionary Roman Assembly proclaimed the

Roman Republic. Subsequently, the Constitution of the Roman Republic abolished papal temporal power, although the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the "Principi fondamentali".[12] Like the other revolutionary movements of 1848, the Republic was short-lived; Rome was eventually conquered by the French Second Republic, which restored the papacy's temporal power in the region once again.[13]

In 1859–60, the Papal States was invaded by various republican forces seeking a unified Italian state, and lost the provinces of

dogma
. According to Raffaele De Cesare:

The first idea of convening an

dogma, originated in the third centenary of the Council of Trent, which took place in that city in December, 1863, and was attended by a number of Austrian and Hungarian prelates.[14]

However, following the

Franciscan partisans in opposition to the prerogative of popes to contradict the more favorable decrees of their predecessors, faced significant resistance outside of Italy prior to and during the First Vatican Council.[15]

For practical purposes, the temporal power of the popes ended on 20 September 1870, when the Italian Army breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia and entered Rome. This completed the Unification of Italy (Risorgimento).

See also

References

  1. ^ Pope Innocent III. Epistolæ, IV, 17, 13. "We do not exercise any temporal jurisdiction except indirectly". From: Jarrett, B. (1911). Papal Arbitration Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine. In the Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  2. ^ Schnürer, Gustav. "States of the Church." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 29 December 2022 Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  3. ^ Noble, Thomas F. X., The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 1984, .p. 93
  4. ^ "Papal States | historical region, Italy | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  5. ^ "Avignon papacy | Summary, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  6. ^ Springborg, Patricia. "Thomas Hobbes and Cardinal Bellarmine: Leviathan and 'the ghost of the Roman empire' " Archived 7 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine. History of Political Thought. XVI:4 (January 1995), pp. 503–531 [516–517].
  7. ISBN 978-0-268-15893-4
    . Bellarmine himself was not a stranger to theological condemnation. In August 1590 Pope Sixtus V decided to place the first volume of the Controversies on the Index because Bellarmine had argued that the pope is not the temporal ruler of the whole world and that temporal rulers do not derive their authority to rule from God through the pope but through the consent of the people governed. However Sixtus died before the revised Index was published, and the next pope, Urban VII, who reigned for only twelve days before his own death, removed Bellarmine's book from the list during that brief period. The times were precarious.
  8. ^ Vacant, Alfred; Mangenot, Eugene; Amann, Emile (1908). "Bellarmin". Dictionnaire de théologie catholique : contenant l'exposé des doctrines de la théologie catholique, leurs preuves et leur histoire (in French). Vol. 2. University of Ottawa (2nd ed.). Paris: Letouzey et Ané. p. 563–564.
  9. ^ "France – Political ideology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
  10. ^ "Papal States – The 15th century to the French Revolution | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  11. ^ Jasper Ridley, Garibaldi, Viking Press (1976) p. 268
  12. ^ "Costituzione Della Repubblica Romana, 1849". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
  13. ^ "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic, 1848–1850 | Watson Institute". Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  14. ^ De Cesare (1909), p. 422.
  15. ^ De Cesare (1909), p. 423.

Sources

Further reading
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