Tendaguru Formation
Tendaguru Formation | ||
---|---|---|
Ma | ||
Approximate paleocoordinates 29°24′S 16°42′E / 29.4°S 16.7°E | | |
Region | Lindi Region | |
Country | Tanzania | |
Extent | Mandawa Basin | |
Type section | ||
Named for | Tendaguru Hill | |
Named by | Janensch & Hennig | |
Year defined | 1914 | |
The Tendaguru Formation, or Tendaguru Beds are a highly fossiliferous formation and Lagerstätte located in the Lindi Region of southeastern Tanzania. The formation represents the oldest sedimentary unit of the Mandawa Basin, overlying Neoproterozoic basement, separating by a long hiatus and unconformity. The formation reaches a total sedimentary thickness of more than 110 metres (360 ft). The formation ranges in age from the late Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, Oxfordian to Hauterivian stages, with the base of the formation possibly extending into the Callovian.
The Tendaguru Formation is subdivided into six members; from oldest to youngest Lower Dinosaur Member, the Nerinella Member, the Middle Dinosaur Member, Indotrigonia africana Member, the Upper Dinosaur Member, and the Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi Member. The succession comprises a sequence of
The Tendaguru Formation is considered the richest
The dinosaur fauna found in the formation is similar to that of other highly fossiliferous stratigraphic units of the Late Jurassic; among others the
Description
The Tendaguru Formation represents the oldest sedimentary unit in the Mandawa Basin, directly overlying Neoproterozoic basement consisting of gneiss. The contact contains a large hiatus, a missing sequence of stratigraphy, spanning the Paleozoic, Triassic and Early Jurassic. The formation is unconformably overlain by late Early Cretaceous sediments of the Makonde Formation, that forms the top of several plateaus; Namunda, Rondo, Noto, and Likonde-Kitale.[2]
Based on extended geological and paleontological observations the "Tendaguruschichten" (Tendaguru Beds) were defined by Werner Janensch as expedition leader and Edwin Hennig in 1914 to define a sequence of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous strata, exposed in the Tendaguru area, which is named after Tendaguru Hill.[3]
Stratigraphy
The Tendaguru is divided into 6 members, which represent different depositional environments, with the 'Dinosaur Beds' representing terrestrial facies while the beds with genus/species names represent marine interbeds with shallow marine to lagoonal facies. In ascending order these are: the Lower Dinosaur Member, the Nerinella Member, the Middle Dinosaur Member, Indotrigonia africana Member, the Upper Dinosaur Member, and the Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi Member.[4]
Formation | Time period | Member | Lithology | Thickness | Image | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Makonde | Early Albian Aptian |
Fine to medium grained sandstones, intercalated conglomerates, siltstones and claystones | ~200 m (660 ft) | ||||
Barremian | Unconformity | ||||||
Tendaguru | Hauterivian Valanginian |
Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi | Fine to medium grained sandstones with basal conglomerate | 5–70 m (16–230 ft) | |||
Berriasian | Unconformity | ||||||
Tithonian | Upper Dinosaur | Ripple cross bedded fine grained sandstones and siltstones with intercalated claystone and micritic carbonates | ~32 m (105 ft) | ||||
Indotrigonia africana | Calcite cemented sandstones, conglomerate beds, thin clay and silt layers with sandy limestones | 20–50 m (66–164 ft) | |||||
Late Kimmeridgian | |||||||
Middle Dinosaur | Ripple cross bedded fine grained calcareous sandstones and siltstones and massive to crudely bedded silt and claystones | 13–30 m (43–98 ft) | |||||
Kimmeridgian Oxfordian |
Nerinella | Trough cross bedded sandstone to massive sandstone | 5–45 m (16–148 ft) | ||||
Mid Oxfordian ?Callovian |
Lower Dinosaur | Cross bedded fine grained sandstones and siltstones, with Interbedded clay-rich siltstones | >20 m (66 ft) | ||||
Early Jurassic | Hiatus | ||||||
Triassic | |||||||
Paleozoic | |||||||
Basement | Neoproterozoic | Gneiss |
Paleogeography and depositional environment
Paleogeography
The Tendaguru Formation was deposited in the
At time of deposition was undergoing a semi-arid climate with coastal influences that maintained somewhat higher moisture levels than seen inland.[12] The upper parts of the formation, the Middle Dinosaur and Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi Members in particular, showed prevailing semiarid conditions with pronounced dry seasons, based on palynologic analysis.[13] The Tendaguru fauna was stable through the Late Jurassic.[14]
During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the Gondwana paleocontinent was breaking up and the separation of the Laurasian and Gondwana supercontinents resulted from the connection of the Tethys Ocean with the proto-Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. In addition, the South Atlantic developed towards the end of the Late Jurassic with the separation of South America and Africa. Africa became increasingly isolated from most other continents by marine barriers from the Kimmeridgian into the Early Cretaceous, but retained a continental connection with South America. Global sea levels dropped significantly in the Early Jurassic and remained low through the Middle Jurassic but rose considerably towards the Late Jurassic, deepening the marine trenches between continents.[15]
Depositional environment
The sedimentary rocks and fossils record a repeated shift from shallow marine to tidal flat environments indicating that the strata of the Tendaguru Formation were deposited near an oscillating strandline which was controlled by sea level changes. The three dinosaur-bearing members are continental to marginal marine and the three sandstone-dominated members are marginal marine in origin.[16]
- Nerinella Member
The composition of benthic molluscs and foraminifera, euhaline to mesohaline ostracods, and dinoflagellate assemblages indicate marine, shallow water conditions for the Nerinella Member, in particular for the lower part. Sedimentation occurred as tidal channel fills, subtidal and tidal
- Middle Dinosaur Member
The sedimentological characteristics of the basal part of the Middle Dinosaur Member suggest deposition on
- Indotrigonia africana Member
The coarse-grained sandstone of the lower part of the Indotrigonia africana Member that shows highly variable transport directions is interpreted as deposits of large tidal channels. Grain-size, large-scale sedimentary structures, and the lack of both trace fossils and epifaunal and infaunal body fossils suggest high water energy and frequent reworking. This basal succession passes upward in cross-bedded sandstone and minor siltstone and claystone with flaser or lenticular bedding that are interpreted as tidal flat and tidal channel deposits. Horizontal to low-angle cross-bedded, fine-grained sandstone with intercalated bivalve pavements indicates tidal currents that operated in small flood and ebb tidal deltas and along the coast. Stacked successions of trough cross-bedded, medium- to coarse-grained sandstone of the upper part of the Indotrigonia africana Member are interpreted as tidal channel and sand bar deposits. At some places in the surroundings of Tendaguru Hill, these sediments interfinger with oolitic limestone layers that represent high-energy ooid shoals.[17]
In the Tingutinguti stream section, the Indotrigonia africana Member exhibits several up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) thick, poorly sorted, conglomeratic sandstone beds. They contain mud clasts, reworked concretions and/or accumulations of thick-shelled bivalves (mainly Indotrigonia africana and Seebachia janenschi), and exhibit megaripple surfaces. These conglomeratic sandstone layers are interpreted as storm deposits. In the Dwanika and Bolachikombe stream sections, and in a small tributary of the Bolachikombe creek, a discrete, up to 70 centimetres (2.3 ft) thick conglomerate in the lower portion of the Indotrigonia africana Member displays evidence of a tsunami deposit. Overall, lithofacies and the diverse macroinvertebrate and microfossil assemblages of the Indotrigonia africana Member suggest a shallow marine environment. Based on the diverse mesoflora and the abundance of
- Upper Dinosaur Member
The small-scale trough and ripple cross-bedded fine-grained sandstone at the base of the Upper Dinosaur Member is interpreted as tidal flat deposits. Unfossiliferous sandstone in the upper part was most likely deposited in small fluvial channels in a
- Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi Member
Fining upward sequences of the basal part of the Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi Member are interpreted as tidal channel fills, the overlying fine-grained sandstone, silt- and claystone as tidal flat deposits. From the immediate surroundings of Tendaguru Hill, invertebrates and vertebrates are poorly known and limit the palaeoenvironmental interpretation of this member. The composition of the land-derived sporomorph assemblage suggests a terrestrial vegetation which was dominated by cheirolepidiacean conifers in association with ferns.[16]
Excavation history
The Tendaguru Beds as a fossil deposit were first discovered in 1906, when
Following the discovery in 1906, teams from the
From there, the material was transported to Fraas' institution, the Royal Natural History Collection in Stuttgart, Germany. Fraas described two species in the badly known genus "Gigantosaurus"; G. robustus and G. africanus (today Janenschia robusta and Tornieria africana, respectively).[21]
German Tendaguru Expedition
The Berlin's Natural History Museum excavated at Tendaguru hill and in the surroundings for four years. From 1909 through 1911, Werner Janensch as expedition leader and Edwin Hennig as assistant directed excavations, while Hans Reck and his wife Ina Reck led the 1912 field season. Other European participants include Hans von Staff. In the rainy seasons the scientists explored the geology of the colony German East Africa on long safaris.
Public discussion about provenance and restitution
In the context of international discussion about the
In popular culture
In 1998, an illustrated book in Swahili, whose title translates as Dinosaurs of Tendaguru, was published for young readers in East Africa. It presents a slightly different, fictitious story of the first discovery, which is attributed to a Tanzanian farmer, rather than to the German engineer Sattler.[24]
Paleontological significance
Possible dinosaur eggs have been recovered from the formation.[25]
The fauna of the Tendaguru Formation has been correlated with the
Fossil content
Color key
|
Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; |
Mammaliaformes
Mammaliaformes reported from the Tendaguru Formation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
Allostaffia | A. aenigmatica | Quarry Ig | Middle Dinosaur | Three isolated molars | Originally described as Staffia, later renamed Allostaffia as gondwanathere instead).[30]
|
|
Brancatherulum | B. tendagurense | Unspecified | Upper Dinosaur[31] | Dentary without teeth | Either a stem- zatherian or dryolestidan.[32]
|
|
Tendagurodon | T. janenschi | Quarry Ig | Middle Dinosaur | Single tooth | One of the earliest amphilestids[33] | |
Tendagurutherium | T. dietrichi | Quarry Ig | Middle Dinosaur | Partial dentary with damaged last molar | Either a peramurid or an australosphenidan[30] |
Squamates
Squamates reported from the Tendaguru Formation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
Paramacellodidae? | Indeterminate | An osteoderm | Unconfirmed[34] |
Pterosaurs
Pterosaurs reported from the Tendaguru Formation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
Tendaguripterus | T. recki[35] | Quarry Ig | Middle Dinosaur | A partial mandible with teeth | [35] | |
?Indeterminate archaeopterodactyloid
|
Mkoawa Mtwara | Humerus | [35][36] | |||
Indeterminate azhdarchid
|
Mkoawa Mtwara | [35] | ||||
Indeterminate dsungaripteroid | Upper Dinosaur[31] | Humerus | [36] | |||
Pterodactylus | P. maximus | Mkoawa Mtwara | Later determined to be an indeterminate pterodactyloid[35]
| |||
P. brancai | Mkoawa Mtwara | Tibiotarsi[37] | Later determined to be an indeterminate dsungaripteroid[35] | |||
P. arningi | Mkoawa Mtwara | Later determined to be an indeterminate pterosaur[35] | ||||
Rhamphorhynchus | R. tendagurensis | Mkoawa Mtwara | Later determined to be an indeterminate " rhamphorhynchoid"[35]
|
Ornithischians
Ornithischians reported from the Tendaguru Formation
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
Dysalotosaurus | D. lettowvorbecki | Quarry Ig | Middle Dinosaur | "Large number of mostly disassociated cranial and postcranial elements" | A dryosaurid[25][38] | |
Kentrosaurus | K. aethiopicus | Quarry Q, Ig, St, S, Ny, Li, XX, r, y, d, Ng, X, H, IX, Om, bb, Ha, XIV, II, IV, V, VIII, G, e, g, Ki | Lower, Middle & Upper Dinosaur | "[Two] composite mounted skeletons, [four] braincases, [seven] sacra, more than [seventy] femora, approximately 25 isolated elements, juvenile to adult" | A stegosaur[25][39] |
Sauropods
Sauropods reported from the Tendaguru Formation
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
Australodocus | A. bohetii | Quarry G | Upper Dinosaur | Two neck vertebrae; more undescribed remains destroyed during World War II | Somphospondylan
|
|
Dicraeosaurus | D. hansemanni | Quarry Q, m, St, dd, Sa | Lower, Middle & Upper Dinosaur | "Skeleton lacking skull and forelimbs, [two] partial skeletons, isolated vertebrae, and limb elements" | Dicraeosaurid[25][41] | |
D. sattleri | Quarry La, s, O, ab, E, M, o, Ob, bb, XIV, G, GD | Middle & Upper Dinosaur | "[Two] partial skeletons without skulls, isolated postcranial remains" | Dicraeosaurid[25][41] | ||
Giraffatitan[25] | G. brancai | Quarry Q, J, Ig, Y, St, dd, S, TL, XX, Ma, JR, Ng, Bo, To, p, t, Lw, D, N, ab, cc, X, IX, Z, T, Aa, l, E, XIV, II, G, e, Ki, No, R, F, XII, GD, XV, Sa, U, i | Lower, Middle & Upper Dinosaur | Brachiosaurid. The new genus Giraffatitan was erected to hold the former Brachiosaurus species, B. brancai after scientists concluded that it was distinct enough from the Brachiosaurus type species, B. altithorax, to warrant such a reclassification.[42]
|
||
Janenschia | J. robusta | Quarry dd, P, IX, B, G, Oa, NB | Middle & Upper Dinosaur | Known from hindlimb and forelimb material, left pubis and two right ischia | non-neosauropod eusauropod[25][43] | |
Tendaguria | T. tanzaniensis | Nambango site | Upper Dinosaur | "[Two] associated cranial dorsal vertebrae" | A turiasaur[25][44] | |
Tornieria | T. africana | Quarry St, k, MD, A, e, Sa | Middle & Upper Dinosaur | "More than [three] partial skeletons, a few skull elements, [and] many isolated postcranial elements" | Diplodocid[25][45] | |
Wamweracaudia | W. keranjei | A sequence of caudal vertebrae | Mamenchisaurid[43] | |||
Brachiosaurus | B. brancai | Mkoawa Mtwara | "[Five] partial skeletons, more than [three] skulls, [and] isolated limb elements" | B. brancai was distinct enough from the non-Tendaguru Brachiosaurus type species B. altithorax that it was moved to its own genus, Giraffatitan.[25][42][46] | ||
B. fraasi | Remains attributed to B. fraasi were later referred to B. brancai, and thus now Giraffatitan[25][42] | |||||
Diplodocinae indet. | Indeterminate | Kijenjere | Upper Dinosaur | Partial skull | Belonging to a form that is closely related to Diplodocus[47] | |
Diplodocidae indet. | Indeterminate | Kijenjere | Upper Dinosaur | Caudal vertebrae and metatarsal | Originally referred to as "Barosaurus africanus"[48] | |
Diplodocidae indet. | Indeterminate | Trench XIV | Upper Dinosaur | Articulated pedes | Possibly representing two different taxa[49] | |
Flagellicaudata indet. | Indeterminate | Upper Dinosaur | Braincase | Referred to Flagellicaudata indet. based on the derived characters shared with this group[50] | ||
" The Archbishop "
|
Brachiosaur, distinct from Giraffatitan[note 1] |
Theropods
Theropods reported from the Tendaguru Formation
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
?Abelisauridae indet. | Indeterminate | Quarry TL | Upper Dinosaur | A left tibia, a right tibia, and a femur[51] | Possibly an indeterminate abelisaurid.[51] | |
Megalosauroidea indet. | Indeterminate | Quarry MW | Upper Dinosaur | left tibia and left astragalus[51] | A large indeterminate megalosauroid.[51] | |
Elaphrosaurus | E. bambergi | Quarry Ig, dd, ?RD | Middle Dinosaur, ?Upper Dinosaur | "Postcranial skeleton"[52] | An noasaurid[25]
|
|
Ostafrikasaurus | O. crassiserratus | Quarry Om | Upper Dinosaur | "Tooth" | A tooth of controverisial affinitiies, had either been suggested to have been a spinosaurid or a ceratosaurid.[53][54] | |
Veterupristisaurus | V. milneri | Quarry St | Middle Dinosaur | "Vertebrae" | The earliest known carcharodontosaurid.[51]
|
|
?Allosaurus | ?A. tendagurensis | Quarry TL | Middle Dinosaur | A tibia[25][55] | Remains now considered "Tetanurae indet." Possibly a megalosauroid or carcharodontosaurid.[51] Originally referred to Allosauridae' | |
Ceratosaurus | C. roechlingi | Quarry St, MW | Middle & Upper Dinosaur | Caudal vertebra | Tentatively referred to Ceratosauridae.[51] Originally referred to Allosauridae. | |
Labrosaurus
|
L. stechowi | Quarry St, MW | Middle Dinosaur | Teeth | A ceratosaurid, a species of Ceratosaurus.[51] Originally referred to Allosauridae. | |
?Torvosaurus | T. sp | Quarry St, MW | Upper Dinosaur | Teeth | Includes remains previously referred to "Megalosaurus" ingens - now known as "Torvosaurus sp".[56] |
Crocodyliformes
Genus | Species | Location | Member | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bernissartia | B. sp | Upper & Middle Dinosaur | [31][57] |
Amphibians
Genus | Species | Member | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
?Salientia indet | indeterminate | Middle Dinosaur | [31] |
Fish
Genus | Species | Member | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Engaibatis | Engaibatis schultzei | Upper Dinosaur | [58] | |
Lepidotes | Lepidotes tendaguruensis | Middle Dinosaur | [31] | |
L. sp. | Upper & Middle Dinosaur | [59] | ||
Hybodus | Hybodus sp. | Upper Dinosaur | [60] | |
Lonchidion | Lonchidion sp. | Upper Dinosaur | [61] | |
Sphenodus | Sphenodus sp. | Upper Dinosaur | [62] |
Invertebrates
Gastropods
Genus | Species | Member bold is defining |
Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pseudomelania | Pseudomelania dietrichi | Middle Dinosaur | [19] | |
Promathildia | Promathildia sp. | Middle Dinosaur | [19] | |
Nerinella | Nerinella cutleri | Nerinella | [63] |
Bivalves
Genus | Species | Member bold is defining |
Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Eomiodon | Eomiodon cutleri | Upper Dinosaur | [64] | |
Indotrigonia | Indotrigonia africana | Indotrigonia africana | [65] | |
I. dietrichi | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | ||
Rutitrigonia | Rutitrigonia bornhardti | Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi | [64] | |
R. schwarzi | [64] | |||
Acesta | Acesta cutleri | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Actinostreon | Actinostreon hennigi | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | |
Entolium | Entolium corneolum | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Falcimytilus | Falcimytilus dietrichi | Middle Dinosaur | [19] | |
Grammatodon | Grammatodon irritans | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Liostrea | Liostrea dubiensis | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | |
L. kindopeensis | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | ||
Lithophaga | Lithophaga suboblonga | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | |
Meleagrinella | Meleagrinella radiata | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Nanogyra | Nanogyra nana | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Protocardia | Protocardia schenki | Lower Dinosaur | [66] | |
Seebachia | Seebachia janenschi | Indotrigonia africana | [17] |
Coral
Genus | Species | Member bold is defining |
Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Astrocoenia | Astrocoenia bernensis | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | |
Meandrophyllia | Meandrophyllia oolithotithonica | Indotrigonia africana | [67] | |
Thamnoseris | Thamnoseris sp. | Indotrigonia africana | [67] |
Ostracods
Genus | Species | Member bold is defining |
Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bythocypris | Bythocypris sp. | Middle Dinosaur | [17] | |
Cypridea | Cypridea sp. | Middle & Upper Dinosaur | [17] |
Flora
Group | Taxa | Member | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|
Araucariaceae | Araucariacites | Lower Dinosaur | [68] | |
Cheirolepidiaceae | Classopollis |
Indotrigonia africana Lower Dinosaur |
[17][68] | |
Cupressaceae | Cupressinoxylon sp. | Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi | [69] | |
Cycadaceae |
Cycadoxylon sp. | Indotrigonia africana | [70] | |
Ginkgoaceae | Ginkgoxylon sp. | Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi | [71] | |
Taxodiaceae | Glyptostroboxylon sp. | Middle Dinosaur | [69] | |
Taxaceae | Taxaceoxylon sp. | Rutitrigonia bornhardti-schwarzi | [71] | |
Prasinophyta | Cymatiosphaera sp. | Indotrigonia africana | [72] | |
Zygnemataceae | Ovoidites parvus | Middle Dinosaur | [72] | |
Dinoflagellates |
various | Indotrigonia africana Middle Dinosaur |
[72] | |
Gymnosperm pollen | various | Indotrigonia africana Middle Dinosaur |
[72] | |
Pteridophytic and bryophytic spores |
various | Indotrigonia africana Middle Dinosaur |
[72] |
See also
- List of stratigraphic units with dinosaur body fossils
- List of African dinosaurs
- Manda Formation, Triassic fossiliferous formation of Tanzania
- Usili Formation, Permian fossiliferous formation of Tanzania
- Mugher Mudstone, Tithonian fossiliferous formation of Ethiopia
- Ksar Metlili Formation, Tithonian to Berriasian fossiliferous formation of Morocco
- Kirkwood Formation, Berriasian to Hauterivian fossiliferous formation of South Africa
- Sundays River Formation, Valanginian to Hauterivian fossiliferous formation of South Africa
- Bajada Colorada Formation, Berriasian to Valanginian fossiliferous formation of Argentina
- Dinosaurs of Tendaguru, Book for young readers in Swahili
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ Formal description in preparation by Michael Taylor in 2019
References
- ^ Mateus, 2006, pp.223–232
- ^ Bussert et al., 2009, p.154
- ^ a b Bussert et al., 2009, p.142
- ^ Schwarz-Wings & Böhm, 2014, p.82
- ^ Bussert et al., 2009, p.152
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.28
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.8
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.33
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.3
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.17
- ^ Muhongo, 2013, p.22
- ^ Noto & Grossmann, 2010, p.7
- ^ Schrank, 1999, p.181
- ^ Noto & Grossmann, 2010, p.9
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.227
- ^ a b Bussert et al., 2009, p.168
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bussert et al., 2009, p.167
- ^ a b Aberhan et al., 2002, p.32
- ^ a b c d Aberhan et al., 2002, p.33
- ^ Maier, 2003
- ^ a b Fraas, 1908
- ^ Cifelli, 2003, p.608
- ^ Vogel, Gretchen (2019-03-27). "Countries demand their fossils back, forcing natural history museums to confront their past". Science | AAAS. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
- ISBN 0253342147.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Weishampel et al., 2004, p.552
- ^ Taylor, 2009, p.790
- ^ Mateus, 2006, p.1
- ^ Noto & Grossmann, 2010, p.3
- ^ Heinrich, 2004
- ^ a b Chimento et al., 2016
- ^ a b c d e Aberhan et al., 2002, p.30
- ^ Averianov & Martin, 2015, p.327
- ^ Heinrich, 1998, p.269
- ISBN 978-1-108-93889-1, retrieved 2024-01-11
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barrett et al., 2008
- ^ a b Costa & Kellner, 2009, p.814
- ^ Galton, 1980
- ^ "Table 19.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.414
- ^ "Table 16.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.344
- ^ Remes, 2007
- ^ a b "Table 13.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.264
- ^ a b c Taylor, M.P., 2009, pp.787-806
- ^ a b Mannion et al., 2019
- ^ "Table 13.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.261
- ^ "Table 13.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.265
- ^ "Table 13.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.267
- ^ Remes, 2009, p.26
- ^ Remes, 2009, p.28
- ^ Remes, 2009, p.30
- ^ Remes, 2009, p.34
- ^ a b c d e f g h Rauhut, Oliver W. M. (2011). "Theropod dinosaurs from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania". Special Papers in Palaeontology. 86: 195–239.
- ^ "Table 3.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.48
- ^ Buffetaut, 2012, p.2
- S2CID 224842133.
- ^ "Table 4.1," in Weishampel et al., 2004, p.75
- S2CID 213672502.
- ^ Bussert et al., 2009, p.164
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.219
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.224
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.213
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.216
- ^ Arratia et al., 2002, p.218
- ^ Bussert et al., 2009, p.159
- ^ a b c Bussert et al., 2009, p.165
- ^ Bussert et al., 2009, p.162
- ^ a b c d e f g Aberhan et al., 2002, p.27
- ^ a b c d e f g Aberhan et al., 2002, p.34
- ^ a b Aberhan et al., 2002, p.25
- ^ a b Kahlert et al., 1999, p.192
- ^ Kahlert et al., 1999, p.188
- ^ a b Kahlert et al., 1999, p.190
- ^ a b c d e Schrank, 1999, p.173
Bibliography
- Geology
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- ISBN 0-520-24209-2