Tennessee Valley Authority
Logo of the TVA Flag of the TVA | |
Company type | State-owned enterprise |
---|---|
Industry | Electric utility |
Founded | May 18, 1933 |
Founders | |
Headquarters | Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S. |
Key people | Joe Ritch, Chair[1] Jeff Lyash, CEO[2] |
Revenue | US$12.54 billion (2022) |
US$1.11 billion USD (2022) | |
Owner | Federal government of the United States |
Website | tva.com |
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a federally owned electric utility corporation in the United States. TVA's service area covers all of Tennessee, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, and small areas of Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia. While owned by the federal government, TVA receives no taxpayer funding and operates similarly to a private for-profit company. It is headquartered in Knoxville, Tennessee, and is the sixth-largest power supplier and largest public utility in the country.[3][4]
The TVA was created by Congress in 1933 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. Its initial purpose was to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, regional planning, and economic development to the Tennessee Valley, a region that had suffered from lack of infrastructure and even more extensive poverty during the Great Depression than other regions of the nation. TVA was envisioned both as a power supplier and a regional economic development agency that would work to help modernize the region's economy and society. It later evolved primarily into an electric utility.[5] It was the first large regional planning agency of the U.S. federal government, and remains the largest.
Under the leadership of David E. Lilienthal, the TVA also became the global model for the United States' later efforts to help modernize agrarian societies in the developing world.[6][7] The TVA historically has been documented as a success in its efforts to modernize the Tennessee Valley and helping to recruit new employment opportunities to the region. Historians have criticized its use of eminent domain and the displacement of over 125,000 Tennessee Valley residents to build the agency's infrastructure projects.[8][9][10]
Operation
The Tennessee Valley Authority is a government-owned corporation created by U.S. Code Title 16, Chapter 12A, the Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933. It was initially founded as an agency to provide general economic development to the region through power generation, flood control, navigation assistance, fertilizer manufacturing, and agricultural development. Since the Depression years, it has developed primarily into a power utility. Despite its shares being owned by the federal government, TVA operates like a private corporation, and receives no taxpayer funding.[11] The TVA Act authorizes the company to use eminent domain.[12]
TVA provides electricity to approximately ten million people through a diverse portfolio that includes nuclear, coal-fired, natural gas-fired, hydroelectric, and renewable generation. TVA sells its power to 153 local power utilities, 58 direct-serve industrial and institutional customers, 7 federal installations, and 12 area utilities.[13] In addition to power generation, TVA provides flood control with its 29 hydroelectric dams. Resulting lakes and other areas also allow for recreational activities. The TVA also provides navigation and land management along rivers within its region of operation, which is the fifth-largest river system in the United States, and assists governments and private companies on economic development projects.[11]
TVA's headquarters are located in Downtown Knoxville, with large administrative offices in Chattanooga (training/development; supplier relations; power generation and transmission) and Nashville (economic development) in Tennessee and Muscle Shoals, Alabama. TVA's headquarters were housed in the Old Customs House in Knoxville from 1936 until 1976, when the current complex opened. The building is now operated as a museum and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[14]
The Tennessee Valley Authority Police is the primary law enforcement agency for the company. Initially part of the TVA, in 1994 the TVA Police was authorized as a federal law enforcement agency.
Board of directors
The Tennessee Valley Authority is governed by a nine-member part-time board of directors, nominated by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate.[1] A minimum of seven of the directors are required to be residents of TVA's service area. The members select the chair from their number, and serve five-year terms.[a] They receive annual stipends of $45,000 ($50,000 for the chair). The board members choose the TVA's chief executive officer.[15] When their terms expire, directors may remain on the board until the end of the current congressional session (typically in December) or until their successors take office, whichever comes first.[11]
Name | State | Position | Appointed by | Sworn in | Term expires |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Joe H. Ritch | Alabama | Chairman | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2025 |
Brian Noland | Tennessee | Board member | Donald Trump | December 31, 2020 | May 18, 2024 |
Beth Harwell | Tennessee | Board member | Donald Trump | January 5, 2021 | May 18, 2024 |
Beth Prichard Geer | Tennessee | Board member | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2026 |
Robert P. Klein | Tennessee | Board member | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2026 |
L. Michelle Moore | Georgia | Board member | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2026 |
Adam Wade White | Kentucky
|
Board member | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2027 |
William J. Renick | Mississippi | Board member | Joe Biden | January 4, 2023 | May 18, 2027 |
Power generation
Power stations
With a generating capacity of approximately 35 gigawatts (GW), TVA has the sixth highest generation capacity of any utility company in the United States and the third largest
Electric transmission
TVA owns and operates its own
Recreation
TVA has conveyed approximately 485,420 acres (1,964.4 km2) of property for recreation and preservation purposes including public parks, public access areas and roadside parks, wildlife refuges, national parks and forests, and other camps and recreation areas, comprising approximately 759 different sites.[23]
Currently, TVA manages approximately 293,000 acres (1,190 km2) of Federally-owned land for public use. These lands are managed as either TVA Natural Areas or TVA Day-Use Recreation Areas. Natural Areas are smaller, ecologically or historically significant areas set aside for conservation, with some areas including hiking and walking trails. Day-Use Recreation Areas comprise approximately 80 different locations throughout the Tennessee Valley largely concentrated on or near TVA reservoirs that include water access points, campgrounds, hiking trails, fishing piers, and equestrian facilities.[24][25]
Economic development
TVA operates an economic development organization that works with companies and economic development agencies throughout the Tennessee Valley to create jobs via private investments. They also work with businesses to help them choose locations for facilities and expand existing facilities. Services provided include assistance with site selection, employee recruitment and training, and research.[26] A total of seven sites throughout the Valley are certified by TVA as megasites, which contain a minimum of 1,000 acres (4.0 km2), and have access to an Interstate Highway and the potential for rail service, and environmental impact study, and contain or have the potential to contain direct-serve industrial customers.[27]
History
Background
In the late 19th century, the Army Corps of Engineers first recognized a number of potential dam sites along the Tennessee River for electricity generation and navigation improvements.[28] The National Defense Act of 1916, signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson, authorized the construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Tennessee River in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, for the purpose of producing nitrates for ammunition. During the 1920s and the 1930s, Americans began to support the idea of public ownership of utilities, particularly hydroelectric power facilities. Many believed privately owned power companies were charging too much for power, did not employ fair operating practices, and were subject to abuse by their owners, utility holding companies, at the expense of consumers.[citation needed] The concept of government-owned generation facilities selling to publicly owned distribution utilities was controversial, and remains so today.[29] The private sector practice of forming utility holding companies had resulted in them controlling 94 percent of generation by 1921, and they were essentially unregulated. In an effort to change this, Congress and Roosevelt enacted the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA).[30]
During his 1932 presidential campaign, Franklin D. Roosevelt expressed his belief that private utilities had "selfish purposes" and said, "Never shall the federal government part with its sovereignty or with its control of its power resources while I'm President of the United States."
U.S. Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska also distrusted private utility companies, and in 1920 blocked a proposal from industrialist Henry Ford to build a private dam and create a utility to modernize the Tennessee Valley.[31] In 1930, Norris sponsored the Muscle Shoals Bill, which would have built a federal dam in the valley, but it was vetoed by President Herbert Hoover, who believed it to be socialistic.[32]
The idea behind the Muscle Shoals project became a core part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program that created the Tennessee Valley Authority.[33]
Even by Depression standards, the Tennessee Valley was in dire economic straits in 1933. Thirty percent of the population was affected by malaria. The average income in the rural areas was $639 per year (equivalent to $11,947 in 2024),[34] with some families surviving on as little as $100 per year (equivalent to $1,870 in 2023).[34]
Much of the land had been exhausted by poor farming practices, and the soil was eroded and depleted. Crop yields had fallen, reducing farm incomes. The best timber had been cut, and 10% of forests were lost to fires each year.[29]
Founding and early history
President
The Authority hired many of the area's unemployed for a variety of jobs: they conducted
Many local landowners were suspicious of government agencies, but TVA successfully introduced new agricultural methods into traditional farming communities by blending in and finding local champions. Tennessee farmers often rejected advice from TVA officials, so the officials had to find leaders in the communities and convince them that crop rotation and the judicious application of fertilizers could restore soil fertility.[38] Once they had convinced the leaders, the rest followed.[36]
TVA immediately embarked on the construction of several hydroelectric dams, with the first, Norris Dam in upper East Tennessee, breaking ground on October 1, 1933. These facilities, designed with the intent of also controlling floods, greatly improved the lives of farmers and rural residents, making their lives easier and farms in the Tennessee Valley more productive. They also provided new employment opportunities to the poverty-stricken regions in the Valley. At the same time, however, they required the displacement of more than 125,000 valley residents or roughly 15,000 families,[8] as well as some cemeteries and small towns, which caused some to oppose the projects, especially in rural areas.[9][39] The projects also inundated several Native American archaeological sites, and graves were reinterred at new locations, along with new tombstones.[40]
The available electricity attracted new industries to the region, including textile mills, providing desperately needed jobs, many of which were filled by women.[5][41] A few regions of the Tennessee Valley did not receive electricity until the late 1940s and early 1950s, however. TVA was one of the first federal hydropower agencies, and was quickly hailed as a success. While most of the nation's major hydropower systems are federally managed today, other attempts to create similar regional corporate agencies have failed. The most notable was the proposed Columbia Valley Authority for the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest, which was modeled off of TVA, but did not gain approval.[42]
World War II
In order to provide the power for essential industries during
The largest project of this period was the
Increasing power demand
By the end of World War II, TVA had completed a 650-mile (1,050 km) navigation channel the length of the Tennessee River and had become the nation's largest electricity supplier.[49] Even so, the demand for electricity was outstripping TVA's capacity to produce power from hydroelectric dams, and so TVA began to construct additional coal-fired plants. Political interference kept TVA from securing additional federal appropriations to do so, so it sought the authority to issue bonds.[50] Several of TVA's coal-fired plants, including Johnsonville, Widows Creek, Shawnee, Kingston, Gallatin, and John Sevier, began operations in the 1950s.[51] In 1955 coal surpassed hydroelectricity as TVA's top generating source.[52] On August 6, 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed into law an amendment to the TVA act, making the agency self-financing.[53] During the 1950s, TVA's generating capacity nearly quadrupled.[21]
The 1960s were years of further unprecedented economic growth in the Tennessee Valley. Capacity growth during this time slowed, but ultimately increased 56% between 1960 and 1970.[21] To handle a projected future increase in electrical consumption, TVA began constructing 500 kilovolt (kV) transmission lines, the first of which was placed into service on May 15, 1965.[21] Electric rates were among the nation's lowest during this time and stayed low as TVA brought larger, more efficient generating units into service. Plants completed during this time included Paradise, Bull Run, and Nickajack Dam.[21] Expecting the Valley's electric power needs to continue to grow, TVA began building nuclear power plants in 1966 as a new source of power.[54] The following year, TVA began work on the construction of Tellico Dam, which had been initially conceived in the 1930s and would later become its most controversial project.[55][56][57]
Financial problems, Tellico Dam, and restructuring
During the 1970s significant changes occurred in the economy of the Tennessee Valley and the nation, prompted by energy crises in
Construction of the
The inflation crises of the 1970s and early 1980s, combined with the cancellation of several of the planned nuclear plants put the agency in deep financial trouble.[69] In an effort to restructure and improve efficiency and financial stability, TVA began shifting towards a more corporate environment in the latter 1980s.[70] Marvin Travis Runyon, a former corporate executive in the automotive industry, became chairman of the TVA in January 1988, and pledged to stabilize the agency financially. During his four-year term he worked to reduce management layers, and reduced overhead costs by more than 30%, which required thousands of workers to be laid off and many operations transferred to private contractors. These moves resulted in cumulative savings and efficiency improvements of $1.8 billion (equivalent to $3.51 billion in 2023[34]).[69][70] His tenure also saw three of the agency's five nuclear reactors return to service,[71][72] and the institution of a rate freeze that continued for ten years.[73]
Early 1990s to late 2010s
As the electric-utility industry moved toward restructuring and deregulation, TVA began preparing for competition. It cut operating costs by nearly $800 million a year, reduced its workforce by more than half, increased the generating capacity of its plants, and developed a plan to meet the energy needs of the Tennessee Valley through 2020.[74]
In 1992 work resumed on
On December 22, 2008, an earthen dike impounding a
In 2009, to gain more access to sustainable, green energy, TVA signed 20-year
Recent history
In 2018, TVA opened a new cybersecurity center in its downtown Chattanooga Office Complex. More than 20 Information Technology specialists monitor emails, Twitter feeds and network activity for cybersecurity threats and threats to grid security. Across TVA's digital platform, two billion activities occur each day. The center is staffed 24 hours a day to spot any threats to TVA's 16,000 miles of transmission lines.[90]
Given continued economic pressure on the coal industry, the TVA board defied President Donald Trump and voted in February 2019 to close two aging coal plants, Paradise Unit 3 and Bull Run. TVA chief executive Bill Johnson said the decision was not about coal, per se, but rather "about keeping rates as low as feasible". They stated that decommissioning the two plants would reduce its carbon output by about 4.4% annually.[91] TVA announced in April 2021 plans to completely phase out coal power by 2035.[92] The following month, the board voted to consider replacing almost all of their operating coal facilities with combined-cycle gas plants. Such plants considered for gas plant redevelopment include the Cumberland, Gallatin, Shawnee, and Kingston facilities.[93]
In early February 2020, TVA awarded an outside company, Framatome, several multi-million-dollar contracts for work across the company's nuclear reactor fleet.[94] This includes fuel for the Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant, fuel handling equipment upgrades across the fleet and steam generator replacements at the Watts Bar Nuclear Plant. Framatome will provide its state-of-the-art ATRIUM 11 fuel for the three boiling water reactors at Browns Ferry. This contract makes TVA the third U.S. utility to switch to the ATRIUM 11 fuel design.[94] On August 3, 2020, President Trump fired the TVA chairman and another board member, saying they were overpaid and had outsourced 200 high-tech jobs. The move came after U.S. Tech Workers, a nonprofit that works to limit visas given to foreign technology workers, criticized the TVA for laying off its own workers and replacing them with contractors using foreign workers with H-1B visas.[95]
Citing its aspiration to reach net-zero carbon emissions in 2050, the TVA Board voted to approve an advanced approach of nuclear energy technology with an estimated $200 million investment, known as the New Nuclear Program (NNP) in February 2022. This would promote the construction of new nuclear power facilities, particularly
Criticism and controversies
Allegations of federal government overreach
TVA was heralded by
Supporters of TVA note that the agency's management of the Tennessee River system without appropriated federal funding saves federal taxpayers millions of dollars annually. Opponents, such as Dean Russell in The TVA Idea, in addition to condemning the project as being
However, it has been shown that in river policy, the strength of opposing interest groups also mattered.
In 1953, President
Legal challenges
The TVA has faced multiple constitutional challenges. The
Discrimination
In 1981 the TVA Board of Directors broke with previous tradition and took a hard line against white-collar unions during contract negotiations. As a result, a
Eminent domain and resident removal
TVA has received criticism throughout its entire history for what some have perceived as excessive use of its authority of eminent domain and an unwillingness to compromise with landowners. All of TVA's hydroelectric projects were made possible through the use of eminent domain,[118][119] and displaced more than 125,000 Tennessee Valley residents.[8] Residents who initially refused to sell their land were often forced to do so via court orders and lawsuits.[120][118] Many of these projects also inundated historic Native American sites and early Colonial-era settlements.[121][122][123] Historians have claimed that the TVA forced residents to sell their property at values less than the fair market value, and indirectly destabilized the real estate market for farmland.[39] Some displaced residents committed suicide, unable to bear the events.[9] On some occasions, land that TVA had acquired through eminent domain that was expected to be flooded by reservoirs was not flooded, and was instead given away to private developers.[124]
In popular culture
The 1960 film Wild River, directed by Elia Kazan, tells the story about a family forced to relocate from their land, which has been owned by their ancestors for generations, after TVA plans to construct a dam which will flood it. While fictional, the film depicts the real-life experiences of many people forced to give up their land to TVA to make way for hydroelectric projects, and was mostly inspired by the removal of families for the Norris Dam project.[39][125]
The 1970 James Dickey novel Deliverance and its 1972 film adaptation focuses on four Atlanta businessmen taking a canoeing trip down a river that is being impounded by an electric utility, nodding to the TVA's early and controversial hydroelectric projects.[126] The 1984 Mark Rydell film The River focuses on an East Tennessee family being confronted by the loss of their ancestral farm from the inundation of a nearby river by an electric utility. The film, shot on farmland near the Holston River in Hawkins County, utilized flooding practical effects provided by the TVA.[127] In the 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou?, the family home of the protagonist, played by George Clooney, is flooded by a reservoir constructed by the TVA. This plays a central role in the pacing of the film and the broader Depression-era Mississippi context of the narrative.[128]
"Song of the South" by country and Southern rock band Alabama features the lyrics "Papa got a job with the TVA" following the lyrics "Well momma got sick and daddy got down, The county got the farm and they moved to town" expressing the hardships and changes that southerners faced during the post recession era.[129] The TVA and its impact on the region are featured in the Drive-By Truckers' songs "TVA" and "Uncle Frank". In "TVA", the singer reflects on time spent with family members and a girlfriend at Wilson Dam. In "Uncle Frank", the lyrics tell the story of an unnamed hydroelectric dam being built, and the effects on the community that would become flooded upon its completion. In 2012, Jason Isbell released a solo cover of "TVA".[130]
See also
- Environmental history of the United States
- Appalachian Regional Commission
- Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority, modelled on the TVA
- James Bay Energy Corporation, a Crown corporation of the Quebec government for developing the James Bay Project for building various dams on rivers
- List of navigation authorities in the United States
- Muscle Shoals Bill
- Nashville Electric Service
- New Deal
- Norris, Tennessee
- Tennessee Valley Authority Police
- Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill
Notes
- ^ When their terms expire, directors may remain on the board until the end of the current congressional session (typically in December) or until their successors take office, whichever comes first.
References
- ^ a b "Board of Directors". TVA.
- ^ Gaines, Jim (February 14, 2019). "TVA names president of Canadian utility as new CEO to replace outgoing Bill Johnson". Knoxville News Sentinel. Knoxville, Tennessee. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
- ^ a b "Factbox: Largest U.S. electric companies by megawatts, customers". Reuters. April 29, 2014. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ Sainz, Adrian (November 14, 2019). "Nation's largest utility in long-term deals to sell power". ABC News. Associated Press. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
- ^ a b Neuse 2004, pp. 972–979.
- ^ OCLC 772657716.
- ^ "Global Impact" (PDF). Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved May 17, 2021.
- ^ a b c John Gaventa (1982). "Book Review, 'TVA and the Dispossessed: The Resettlement of Population in the Norris Dam Area'". Tennessee Law Review. Symposium, the Tennessee Valley Authority. Knoxville, Tennessee: Tennessee Law Review Association: 979–983.
Over the past fifty years the agency has had many opportunities to learn from its mistakes. Since 1933, over 125,000 residents have been displaced from their homesteads by TVA dam construction projects.
- ^ ISBN 9781572331648. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
- ^ "The Price of Power: How the Tennessee Valley Authority Impacted Attitudes Towards Economic Development in East Tennessee". Appalachian Free Press. January 12, 2022. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
- ^ a b c "About TVA". tva.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
- ^ "The TVA and the Relocation of Mattie Randolph". Archives.gov. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
- ^ "Public Power Partnerships". tva.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "East Tennessee Historical Society". East-tennessee-history.org. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved February 28, 2012.
- ^ "TVA Board Expanded To 9 Members". The Chattanoogan. Chattanooga, Tennessee. November 20, 2004. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ McDermott, Jennifer (February 10, 2022). "Largest US public power company launches new nuclear program". Associated Press News. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ a b "Our Power System". tva.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "TVA: Energy Purchases from Wind Farms". TVA. Archived from the original on July 31, 2015.
- ^ Cathey, Ben (May 24, 2022). "Watts Bar lone source of a nuclear weapon material; TVA increasing production". WVLT-TV. Knoxville.
- ^ "U.S. electric system is made up of interconnections and balancing authorities". eia.gov. Energy Information Administration. July 20, 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
- ^ .
- ^ NERC Transmission Planning Map (PDF) (Map). North American Electric Reliability Corporation. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 9, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2021 – via Open Access Same-Time Information System.
- ^ "Chapter 8 – Recreation Management" (PDF). Natural Resource Plan. Tennessee Valley Authority. July 2011. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 10, 2011. Retrieved March 22, 2012.
- ^ "Day-Use Recreation Areas". TVA.com. Tennessee Valley Authority.
- ^ "Small Wild Areas". TVA.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
- ^ "The Global Valley". Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ Mattson-Teig, Beth (Summer 2013). "Mega Sites Lure Big Fish". Area Development. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ Hargrove 1994, p. 19.
- ^ OCLC 600647072– via HathiTrust Digital Library.
- ^ Hawes, Douglas W. (April 1977). "Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 -- Fossil or Foil?". Vanderbilt Law Review. 30 (3): 605–625. Retrieved March 12, 2023.
- ISBN 9780520204218. Retrieved July 4, 2021 – via Google Books.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved September 14, 2021.
- OCLC 971899953.
- ^ Gross Domestic Product deflatorfigures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
- OCLC 300412389.
- ^ ISBN 1528359852.
- ^ a b "TVA". History.com. The History Channel. August 7, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
- OCLC 5545493875.
- ^ a b c Stephens, Joseph (May 2018). "Forced Relocations Presented More of an Ordeal than an Opportunity for Norris Reservoir Families". Historic Union County. Retrieved June 15, 2021.
- ^ Creese 1990, pp. 95–105.
- OCLC 5996637494.
- ^ Hargrove 1994, p. 137.
- ^ Russell 1949, pp. 29–30.
- ^ "Plants of the Past". tva.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved October 21, 2018.
- ^ Russell 1949, pp. 30–32.
- ^ Creese 1990, pp. 221–231.
- OCLC 834187. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 1, 2017. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
- OCLC 10913875. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
- ^ Russell 1949, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Hargrove & Conkin 1983, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Gross, Daniel (October 2, 2015). "The Tennessee Valley Authority is closing coal plants, and that's huge". Slate Magazine. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "The 1950s". tva.com. Tennessee Valley Authority. 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "Snapshot of major events in TVA history". The Knoxville News-Sentinel. May 11, 2008. Retrieved January 20, 2019.
- ^ "TVA timeline by year" (PDF). Tennessee Valley Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2010. Retrieved August 5, 2009.
- ^ Morrissey, Connor (December 11, 2018). "The Tennessee Valley Authority: A Timeline of Controversy". Medium. Retrieved June 2, 2020.
- ^ Rawls, Wendell Jr. (November 11, 1979). "Forgotten People of the Tellico Dam Fight". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved April 18, 2021.
- ^ "Telling the Story of Tellico: It's Complicated". Tennessee Valley Authority. Archived from the original on June 16, 2022. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
- ^ Tennessee Valley Authority (January 1, 1976). Timberlake New Community: Final Environmental Statement (PDF). Chattanooga: Boston College Law School. Retrieved August 11, 2021.
- ^ Van West, Carroll (October 8, 2017). "Monroe County". Tennessee Encyclopedia. Tennessee Historical Society. Retrieved August 11, 2021.
- ^ "Browns Ferry No. 2 N-Unit Test Approved". The Tennessean. Nashville, Tennessee. Associated Press. August 9, 1974. p. 6. Retrieved August 23, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Wald, Matthew (August 19, 2011). "Alabama Nuclear Reactor, Partly Built, to Be Finished". The New York Times. p. A12.
- ^ a b Labaton, Stephen (August 3, 1985). "Tennessee Valley Authority Generates Woes With Nuclear Power Program". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ a b Davis, Will (April 17, 2015). "TVA Prepares to Write Final Nuclear Chapters". Nuclear Newswire. American Nuclear Society. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ Hayes, Hank (August 23, 2008). "Nuclear power option still alive at TVA despite Phipps Bend debacle". Kingsport Times-News. Retrieved December 31, 2017.
- ^ "T.V.A., Citing Safety, to Shut Down Nuclear Plant". The New York Times. Associated Press. August 22, 1985. p. A19. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ Wilson, Robert (April 13, 2008). "Tellico Dam still generating debate". Knoxville News Sentinel. Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
- ^ Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153 (U.S. Supreme Court June 15, 1978).
- ^ Rawls, Wendell (November 11, 1979). "Forgotten People of the Tellico Dam Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
- ^ a b Smothers, Ronald (June 30, 1988). "T.V.A. Slashes Work Force And Holds Off on 2 Plants". The New York Times. p. A-14. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
- ^ a b Lippman, Thomas W. (March 29, 1992). "TVA: New Deal For An Old Power". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ Lippman, Thomas W. (April 11, 1990). "For TVA, It's Back to a Nuclear Future". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "TVA Ala. Browns Ferry 1, 2 reactor output rises". Reuters. August 24, 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ Mansfield, Duncan (July 6, 1999). "TVA Shaped Valley Over Course of Decades New Deal Agency Tamed a River, Changed Many Lives in Impoverished Rural Areas". Birmingham News.
- ^ "The 1990s". Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved May 30, 2022.
- ^ Gang, Duane W. (August 29, 2014). "5 things to know about TVA and nuclear power". The Tennessean. Nashville. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ "WATTS BAR-1: Reactor Details". Power Reactor Information System. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
- ^ Safer, Don; Barczak, Sara (October 8, 2015). "Watts Bar Unit 2, last old reactor of the 20th century: a cautionary tale". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
- ^ Derek Hawkins (September 12, 2016). "For sale: Multibillion-dollar, non-working nuclear power plant, as is". Washington Post. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ "WATTS BAR-2". PRIS. International Atomic Energy Agency. June 29, 2013. Retrieved June 29, 2013.
- ^ Blau, Max (October 20, 2016). "First new US nuclear reactor in 20 years goes live". CNN. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
- ^ a b Sullivan, J.R . (September 2019). "A Lawyer, 40 Dead Americans, and a Billion Gallons of Coal Sludge". Men's Journal. Archived from the original on November 2, 2019. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
- ^ Bourne, Joel K. (February 19, 2019). "Coal's other dark side: Toxic ash that can poison water, destroy life and toxify people". National Geographic. Archived from the original on February 19, 2019. Retrieved May 22, 2020.
- ^ Barker, Scott (June 26, 2009). "Report: Four factors led to fly ash spill". Knoxville News-Sentinel. Archived from the original on June 27, 2009.
- ^ Purdom, Rebecca; Remmel, Emily (May 24, 2013). "TVA Found Liable for Massive Coal Ash Spill But Proof of Damages Remains an Obstacle". Vermont Journal of Environmental Law. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
- ^ Satterfield, Jamie (December 22, 2018). "On 10th anniversary of Kingston coal ash spill, workers who went 'through hell and back' honored". Knoxville News-Sentinel. Archived from the original on December 23, 2018.
- ^ "Dakota wind sites help TVA go green". Chattanooga Times Free Press. October 23, 2009. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ a b "Blockbuster Agreement Takes 18 Dirty TVA Coal-Fired Power Plant Units Offline". National Parks Conservation Association. April 14, 2011. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ Flessner, Dave (January 8, 2018). "TVA cuts coal use". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Chattanooga, Tennessee. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
- ^ a b "TVA Board Authorizes New Nuclear Program to Explore Innovative Technology". Tennessee Valley Authority. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
- ^ Flessner, Dave (August 12, 2018). "Protecting the power grid: TVA beefs up security as cyber threats grow". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Retrieved December 29, 2018.
- ^ Mufson, Steven (February 14, 2019). "TVA defies Trump, votes to shut down two aging coal-fired power plants". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 15, 2019.
- ^ Flessner, Dave (April 28, 2021). "TVA plans to phase out coal power by 2035 as utility turns to more gas, nuclear and renewable energy". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
- ^ Flessner, Dave. "TVA begins steps to shut down its biggest coal plant". EnergyCentral. Chattanooga Times Free Press. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
- ^ a b "Framatome signs multimillion-dollar contracts with Tennessee Valley Authority". Framatone. February 3, 2020. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
- ^ "Trump fires Tennessee Valley Authority chair over compensation, outsourcing". NBC News. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
- ^ Derr, Emma (February 2022). "TVA Establishes New Nuclear Program". Nuclear Energy Institute. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
- ^ "MLGW: No rolling blackouts after TVA rescinds order". WREG-TV. December 23, 2022. Retrieved December 23, 2022.
- ^ "TVA ends rolling blackouts across East Tennessee". WJHL-TV. Johnson City, Tennessee. December 23, 2022. Retrieved December 23, 2022.
- ^ "Outages grow in Middle Tennessee, with some without power for hours". WTVF-TV. Nashville. December 23, 2022. Retrieved December 23, 2022.
- ^ Russell 1949, pp. 10–11.
- OCLC 801179619.
- OCLC 162313.
- ^ ISSN 0036-0112.
- ^ "Eisenhower Points to the T. V. A. As 'Creeping Socialism' Example". The New York Times. June 18, 1953. p. 1. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
- ^ Sturgis, Sue (April 16, 2013). "The strange politics of TVA privatization". Facing South. Durham, North Carolina: Institute for Southern Studies. Retrieved June 1, 2023.
- NewsHour with Jim Lehrer online. PBS. Archived from the originalon February 27, 2012.
In 1962, GE, concerned that Reagan's conservative politics made him a liability, fired him for criticizing the Tennessee Valley Authority as an example of 'big government.'
- ^ Weisberg, Jacob (January 8, 2016). "The Road to Reagandom: How Reagan's eight-year gig as the host of General Electric Theater sparked his conservative conversion and became the genesis of his political career". Slate. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- Moldea, Dan E. (March 15, 1987). "Ronald Reagan and his 1962 grand jury testimony". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ "Inquiry Dealt With Suspected Payoffs by Conglomerate: Book Says Reagan Was Cleared in '60s Probe of MCA". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. September 21, 1986. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- OCLC 624456231.
- OCLC 396994651.
- ^ Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 U.S. 288 (1936).
- OCLC 707092889.
- ^ Ezzell, Timothy (2009). "Jo Conn Guild". Guild, Jo Conn. Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
- ^ "Sex-Discrimination Action Moved Here". The Knoxville News-Sentinel. February 29, 1984. p. B7. Retrieved May 17, 2023.
- ^ "TVA discrimination suit settled". Kingsport Times-News. United Press International. March 14, 1987. p. 3A. Retrieved May 17, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Robinson, Bonnie (April 26, 1942). "Historic Bean Station, Oldest House in This Section, Fine Homes, and Other Landmarks Will Disappear in Cherokee Dam Lake". Knoxville News Sentinel. p. 26. Retrieved November 7, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Onion, Rebecca (September 5, 2013). "The Tennessee Valley Authority vs. the Family That Just Wouldn't Leave". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
- ^ "TVA". Tennessee Historical Society. March 13, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2021.
- ^ McMahan, Carroll (November 23, 2020). "Douglas Dam construction created controversy, displaced families". The Mountain Press. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
- ^ Jefferson Chapman, Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985).
- ^ Vicki Rozema, Footsteps of the Cherokees: A Guide to the Eastern Homelands of the Cherokee Nation (Winston-Salem: John F. Blair), 135.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 5, 2023.
- UPI. Boca Raton, Florida. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
- ^ "Wild River 50th Anniversary Celebration Plans". The Chattanoogan. April 29, 2010. Retrieved February 3, 2019.
- ^ Nelson, S. Tremaine. "Deliverance Revisited: Its relevance to modern American culture is enough to give alumnus James Dickey's acclaimed novel another look". Vanderbilt Magazine. Retrieved December 15, 2021.
- ^ Canby, Vincent (December 19, 1984). "FILM: Farmers' Plight in The River". The New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2022.
- ^ Cavanaugh, Tim (March 2001). "O Big Brother, Where Art Thou?". Reason. Los Angeles: Reason Foundation. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
- ^ "'Song of The South': The Story Behind Alabama's Smash Hit". Wide Open Country. Publishers Clearing House. July 24, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2023.
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Bibliography
- Barde, Robert E. "Arthur E. Morgan, First Chairman of TVA" Tennessee Historical Quarterly 30#3 (1971), pp. 299-314 online
- Colignon, Richard A. (1997). Power Plays: Critical Events in the Institutionalism of the Tennessee Valley Authority. SUNY series in the sociology of work. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. OCLC 42855981.
- Creese, Walter L. (1990). TVA's public planning: The vision, the reality. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. OCLC 476873440– via Internet Archive.
- Culvahouse, Tim, ed. (2007). The Tennessee Valley Authority: Design and persuasion. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. OCLC 929309559.
- Hargrove, Erwin C.; Conkin, Paul K., eds. (1983). TVA: Fifty years of grass-roots bureaucracy. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. OCLC 474377514– via Internet Archive.
- Hargrove, Erwin C. (1994). Prisoners of myth: the leadership of the Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933–1990. Princeton Studies in American Politics: Historical, International, and Comparative Perspectives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. JSTOR j.ctt7rvbh– via Internet Archive.
- Kull, Donald C. (Winter 1949). "Decentralized Budget Administration in the Tennessee Valley Authority". OCLC 5544417850.
- Lilienthal, David E. (1953). TVA: Democracy on the march. New York: Harper & Row – via Internet Archive.
- OCLC 607606121– via Internet Archive.
- Neuse, Steven M. (1996). David E. Lilienthal: The Journey of an American Liberal. Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0-87049-940-8– via Google Books.
- Neuse, Steven M. (2004). "Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)". In McElvaine, Robert S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Great Depression. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Macmillan Reference USA.
- Neuse, Steven M. (November–December 1983). "TVA at Age Fifty—Reflections and Retrospect". OCLC 5550047671.
- Neuse, Steven M. (1996). David E. Lilienthal: the journey of an American liberal. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. OCLC 243857932.
- Russell, Dean (1949). The TVA idea. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: OCLC 564022– via Google Books.
- Talbert, Roy Jr. (1987). FDR's Utopian: Arthur Morgan of the TVA. Jackson, Mississippi: ISBN 0-87805-301-8– via Google Books.
- Wilson, Marshall A. (1982). Tales From the Grass Roots of TVA, 1933-1952. Knoxville, Tennessee: Wilson Publishing. OCLC 1011650240.
External links
- Official website
- Tennessee Valley Authority in the Federal Register
- Tennessee Valley Authority (March 1950). Wikisource. – via
- WPA Photographs of TVA Archaeological Projects
- The New Deal and TVA on YouTube
- Papers of Arnold R. Jones (Member of the Board of Directors, Tennessee Valley Authority), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- TVA history
- The short film Valley of the Tennessee (1944) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.