Exam
An examination (exam or evaluation) or test is an
Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. There is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or governing bodies.
A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test is a reading test administered by a parent to a child. A formal test might be a
A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example, in the United States, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as the SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests.
History
Oral and informal examinations
Informal, unofficial, and non-standardized tests and testing systems have existed throughout history. For example, tests of skill such as
China
Standardized written examinations were first implemented in China. They were commonly known as the imperial examinations (keju).
The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept has its origins in the year 605 during the short lived Sui dynasty. Its successor, the Tang dynasty, implemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian.[4] Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam that tested physical ability, but the military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system is still a matter of scholarly debate.
During the
A brief interruption to the examinations occurred at the beginning of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored the Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in 1905 during the last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.[6]
Spread
Japan
Japan implemented the examination system for 200 years during the Heian period (794-1185). Like the Chinese examinations, the curriculum revolved around the Confucian canon. However, unlike in China, it was only ever applied to the minor nobility and so gradually faded away under the hereditary system during the Samurai era.[7]
Korea
The examination system was established in Korea in 958 under the reign of Gwangjong of Goryeo. Any free man (not Nobi) was able to take the examinations. By the Joseon period, high offices were closed to aristocrats who had not passed the exams. The examination system continued until 1894 when it was abolished by the Gabo Reform. As in China, the content of the examinations focused on the Confucian canon and ensured a loyal scholar bureaucrat class which upheld the throne.[8]
Vietnam
The
West
The imperial examination system was known to
The earliest evidence of examinations in Europe date to 1215 or 1219 in Bologna. These were chiefly oral in the form of a question or answer, disputation, determination, defense, or public lecture. The candidate gave a public lecture of two prepared passages assigned to him from the civil or canon law, and then doctors asked him questions, or expressed objections to answers. Evidence of written examinations do not appear until 1702 at Trinity College, Cambridge. According to Sir Michael Sadler, Europe may have had written examinations since 1518 but he admits the "evidence is not very clear." In Prussia, medication examinations began in 1725. The Mathematical Tripos, founded in 1747, is commonly believed to be the first honor examination, but James Bass Mullinger considered "the candidates not having really undergone any examination whatsoever" because the qualification for a degree was merely four years of residence. France adopted the examination system in 1791 as a result of the French Revolution but it collapsed after only ten years. Germany implemented the examination system around 1800.[12]
Englishmen in the 18th century such as
When the report was brought up in parliament in 1853, Lord Monteagle argued against the implementation of open examinations because it was a Chinese system and China was not an "enlightened country." Lord Stanley called the examinations the "Chinese Principle." The Earl of Granville did not deny this but argued in favor of the examination system, considering that the minority Manchus had been able to rule China with it for over 200 years. In 1854,
After Great Britain's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India in the 19th century, similar systems were instituted in the United Kingdom itself, and in other Western nations.[17] Like the British, the development of the French and American civil service was influenced by the Chinese system. When Thomas Jenckes made a Report from the Joint Select Committee on Retrenchment in 1868, it contained a chapter on the civil service in China. In 1870, William Spear wrote a book called The Oldest and the Newest Empire-China and the United States, in which he urged the United States government to adopt the Chinese examination system. Like in Britain, many of the American elites scorned the plan to implement competitive examinations, which they considered foreign, Chinese, and "un-American." As a result, the civil services reform introduced into the House of Representatives in 1868 was not passed until 1883. The Civil Service Commission tried to combat such sentiments in its report:[18]
...with no intention of commending either the religion or the imperialism of China, we could not see why the fact that the most enlightened and enduring government of the Eastern world had acquired an examination as to the merits of candidates for office, should any more deprive the American people of that advantage, if it might be an advantage, than the facts that Confucius had taught political morality, and the people of China had read books, used the compass, gunpowder, and the multiplication table, during centuries when this continent was a wilderness, should deprive our people of those conveniences.[12]
— Civil Service Commission
Modern development
Standardized testing began to influence the method of examination in British universities from the 1850s, where oral exams had common since the Middle Ages. In the US, the transition happened under the influence of the educational reformer Horace Mann. The shift helped standardize an expansion of the curricula into the sciences and humanities, creating a rationalized method for the evaluation of teachers and institutions and creating a basis for the streaming of students according to ability.[19]
Both World War I and World War II demonstrated the necessity of
Contemporary tests
Education
Tests are used throughout most educational systems. Tests may range from brief, informal questions chosen by the teacher to major tests that students and teachers spend months preparing for.
Some countries such as the United Kingdom and France require all their secondary school students to take a standardized test on individual subjects such as the
Grades or test scores from standardized test may also be used by universities to determine whether a student applicant should be admitted into one of its academic or professional programs. For example, universities in the United Kingdom admit applicants into their undergraduate programs based primarily or solely on an applicant's grades on pre-university qualifications such as the
Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain countries to manage the quality of their educational institutions. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act in the United States requires individual states to develop assessments for students in certain grades. In practice, these assessments typically appear in the form of standardized tests. Test scores of students in specific grades of an educational institution are then used to determine the status of that educational institution, i.e., whether it should be allowed to continue to operate in the same way or to receive funding.
Finally, standardized tests are sometimes used to compare proficiencies of students from different institutions or countries. For example, the
Licensing and certification
Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain governing bodies to determine whether a test taker is allowed to practice a profession, to use a specific job title, or to claim competency in a specific set of skills. For example, a test taker who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such as a governmental bar licensing agency to pass a
Immigration and naturalization
Standardized tests are also used in certain countries to regulate immigration. For example, intended immigrants to Australia are legally required to pass a citizenship test as part of that country's naturalization process.[29]
Language testing in naturalization process
When analyzed in the context of language texting in the naturalization processes, the ideology can be found from two distinct but nearly related points. One refers to the construction and deconstruction of the nation's constitutive elements that makes their own identity, while the second has a more restricted view of the notion of specific language and ideologies that may served in a specific purpose.[30]
Intelligence quotient
Competitions
Tests are sometimes used as a tool to select for participants that have potential to succeed in a competition such as a sporting event. For example, skaters who wish to participate in figure skating competitions in the United States must pass official U.S. Figure Skating tests just to qualify.[31]
Group memberships
Tests are sometimes used by a group to select for certain types of individuals to join the group. For example, Mensa International is a high-IQ society that requires individuals to score at the 98th percentile or higher on a standardized, supervised IQ test.[32]
Types
Assessment types include:[33][34][35]
- Formative assessment
- Formative assessments are informal and formal tests taken during the learning process. These assessments modify the later learning activities, to improve student achievement. They identify strengths and weaknesses and help target areas that need work. The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning.[citation needed]
- Summative assessment
- Summative assessments evaluate competence at the end of an instructional unit, with the goal of determining if the candidate has assimilated the knowledge or skills to the required standard. Summative assessments may cover a few days' instruction, an entire term's work in cases such as GCE Advanced Level examples, or professional licensing tests such as the United States Medical Licensing Examination.
- Norm-referenced test
- Norm-referenced tests compare a student's performance against a national or other "norm" group. Only a certain percentage of test takers will get the best and worse scores. Norm-referencing is usually called grading on a curve when the comparison group is students in the same classroom. Norm-referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of a statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level, who have already taken the exam.[36]
- Criterion-referenced test
Criterion-referenced tests are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of criteria or learning standards. It is possible for all test takers to pass, just like it is possible for all test takers to fail. These tests can use individual's scores to focus on improving the skills that were lacking in comprehension.[36]
- Performance-based assessments
- Performance-based assessments require students to solve real-world problems or produce something with real-world application. For example, the student can demonstrate baking skills by baking a cake, and having the outcome judged for appearance, flavor, and texture.
- Authentic assessment
- An authentic assessment is the measurement of accomplishments within a realistic, practical context that is relevant outside of the school setting.[37] For example, an authentic assessment of arithmetic skills is figuring out how much the family's groceries will cost this week. This provides as much information about the students' addition skills as a test question that asks what the sum of various numbers are.
- Standardized test
- Standardized tests are all tests that are administered and scored in a consistent manner, regardless of whether it is a quick quiz created by the local teacher or a heavily researched test given to millions of people.[38] Standardized tests are often used in education, professional certification, psychology (e.g., MMPI), the military, and many other fields.
- Non-standardized test
- Non-standardized tests are flexible in scope and format, and variable in difficulty. For example, a teacher may go around the classroom and ask each student a different question. Some questions will inevitably be harder than others, and the teacher may be more strict with the answers from better students. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students, to motivate students to study, to provide feedback to students, and to modify the curriculum to make it more appropriate for either low- or high-skill students
- High-stakes test
- High-stakes tests are tests with important consequences for the individual test taker, such as getting a driver's license. A high-stakes test does not need to be a high-stress test, if the test taker is confident of passing.[citation needed]
- Competitive examinations
Competitive exams are norm-referenced, high-stakes tests in which candidates are ranked according to their grades and/or percentile, and then top rankers are selected. If the examination is open for n positions, then the first n candidates in ranks pass, the others are rejected. They are used as
A single test can have multiple qualities. For example, the bar exam for aspiring lawyers may be a norm-referenced, standardized, summative assessment. This means that only the test takers with higher scores will pass, that all of them took the same test under the same circumstances and were graded with the same scoring standards, and that the test is meant to determine whether the law school graduates have learned enough to practice their profession.
Assessment formats
Written tests
In some tests; where knowledge of many constants or technical terms is required to effectively answer questions, like Chemistry or Biology – the test developer may allow every test taker to bring with them a cheat sheet.
A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing a written test is usually arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standard for testing. Be that as it may, certain test styles and formats have become more widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of test items that are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-based tests. As a result, these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple-choice test, essay test) or may have a combination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that has multiple-choice and essay items).
Multiple choice
In a test that has items formatted as multiple-choice questions, a candidate would be given a number of set answers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group of answers is correct. There are two families of multiple-choice questions.[39] The first family is known as the True/False question and it requires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to answer only one from a list of answers.
There are several reasons to using multiple-choice questions in tests. In terms of administration, multiple-choice questions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and grade, provide greater coverage of material, allows for a wide range of difficulty, and can easily diagnose a test taker's difficulty with certain concepts.[40] As an educational tool, multiple-choice items test many levels of learning as well as a test taker's ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors were wrong and why correct answers were right. Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with the use of multiple-choice questions. In administrative terms, multiple-choice items that are effective usually take a great time to construct.[40] As an educational tool, multiple-choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrate knowledge beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to the presence of at least one correct answer. For instance, a test taker might not work out explicitly that , but knowing that , they would choose an answer close to 48. Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in the process, perceive these items to be tricky or picky. Finally, multiple-choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning because correct responses can be easily faked.
Alternative response
True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice – a statement is either true or false. This method presents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of candidates could get 100% just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%.
Matching type
A matching item is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker to match identifying characteristics to the correct term.
Completion type
A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test taker to recall the correct term.[41] There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests. The easier version provides a word bank of possible words that will fill in the blanks. For some exams all words in the word bank are used exactly once. If a teacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but some words may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blank test in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memory than a multiple-choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests[with no word bank] are often feared by students.
Essay
Items such as short answer or essay typically require a test taker to write a response to fulfill the requirements of the item. In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct.[40] As an assessment tool, essay items can test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question. The items can also provide a more realistic and generalizable task for test. Finally, these items make it difficult for test takers to guess the correct answers and require test takers to demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spelling and grammar.
The difficulties with essay items are primarily administrative: for example, test takers require adequate time to be able to compose their answers.[40] When these questions are answered, the answers themselves are usually poorly written because test takers may not have time to organize and proofread their answers. In turn, it takes more time to score or grade these items. When these items are being scored or graded, the grading process itself becomes subjective as non-test related information may influence the process. Thus, considerable effort is required to minimize the subjectivity of the grading process. Finally, as an assessment tool, essay questions may potentially be unreliable in assessing the entire content of a subject matter.
Instructions to exam candidates rely on the use of command words, which direct the examinee to respond in a particular way, for example by describing or defining a concept, or comparing and contrasting two or more scenarios or events. Some command words require more insight or skill than others: for example, "analyse" and "synthesise" assess higher-level skills than "describe".
Quizzes
A quiz is a brief assessment which may cover a small amount of material that was given in a class. Some of them cover two to three lectures that were given in a period of times as a reading section or a given exercise in were the most important part of the class was summarize. However, a simple quiz usually does not count very much, and instructors usually provide this type of test as a formative assessment to help determine whether the student is learning the material. In addition, doing this at the time the instructor collected all can make a significant part of the final course grade.[46]
Mathematical questions
Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics, or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state a mathematical problem or exercise that requires a student to write a freehand response. Marks are given more for the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned.
Higher-level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where the candidate is given a statement and asked to verify its validity by direct proof or stating a counterexample.
Open-book tests
Though not as popular as the closed-book test, open-book (or open-note) tests are slowly rising in popularity. An open-book test allows the test taker to access textbooks and all of their notes while taking the test.[47] The questions asked on open-book exams are typically more thought provoking and intellectual than questions on a closed-book exam. Rather than testing what facts test takers know, open-book exams force them to apply the facts to a broader question. The main benefit that is seen from open-book tests is that they are a better preparation for the real world where one does not have to memorize and has anything they need at their disposal.[48]
Oral tests
An oral test is a test that is answered orally (verbally). The teacher or oral test assessor will verbally ask a question to a student, who will then answer it using words.
Physical fitness tests
A physical fitness test is a test designed to measure
Common tests
Stop watch timing was common until recent years when hand timing had proven to be inaccurate and inconsistent.[53] Electronic timing is the new standard in order to promote accuracy and consistency, and lessen bias.[citation needed]
Performance tests
A performance test is an assessment that requires an examinee to actually perform a task or activity, rather than simply answering questions referring to specific parts. The purpose is to ensure greater fidelity to what is being tested.
An example is a behind-the-wheel driving test to obtain a driver's license. Rather than only answering simple multiple-choice items regarding the driving of an automobile, a student is required to actually drive one while being evaluated.
Performance tests are commonly used in workplace and professional applications, such as professional certification and
Some performance tests are simulations. For instance, the assessment to become certified as an ophthalmic technician includes two components, a multiple-choice examination and a computerized skill simulation. The examinee must demonstrate the ability to complete seven tasks commonly performed on the job, such as retinoscopy, that are simulated on a computer.
Midterms and finals
Midterm exam
A midterm exam, is an exam given near the middle of an academic
Final examination
A final examination, annual, exam, final interview, or simply final, is a
Isolated purpose and common practice
The purpose of the test is to make a final review of the topics covered and assessment of each student's knowledge of the subject. A final is technically just a greater form of a "unit test". They have the same purpose; finals are simply larger. Not all courses or curricula culminate in a final exam; instructors may assign a term paper or final project in some courses. The weighting of the final exam also varies. It may be the largest—or only—factor in the student's course grade; in other cases, it may carry the same weight as a midterm exam, or the student may be exempted. Not all finals need be cumulative, however, as some simply cover the material presented since the last exam. For example, a microbiology course might only cover fungi and parasites on the final exam if this were the policy of the professor, and all other subjects presented in the course would then not be tested on the final exam.
Prior to the examination period most students in the
In the UK, most universities hold a single set of "Finals" at the end of the entire degree course. In Australia, the exam period varies, with high schools commonly assigning one or two weeks for final exams, but the university period—sometimes called "exam week" or just "exams"—may stretch to a maximum of three weeks.
Practice varies widely in the
Though common in French tertiary institutions, final exams are not often assigned in French high schools. However, French high school students hoping to continue their studies at university level will sit a national exam, known as the Baccalauréat.
In some countries and locales that hold standardised exams, it is customary for schools to administer mock examinations, with formats modelling the real exam. Students from different schools are often seen exchanging mock papers as a means of test preparation.
Take-home finals
A take-home final is an examination at the end of an academic term that is usually too long or complex to be completed in a single session as an in-class final. There is usually a deadline for completion, such as within one or two weeks of the end of the semester. A take-home final differs from a final paper, often involving research, extended texts and display of data.[citation needed]
Schedule
In some cases, schools will run on a modified schedule for final exams to allow students more time to do their exams. However, this is not necessarily the case for every institution.[citation needed]
Preparations
From the perspective of a test developer, there is great variability with respect to time and effort needed to prepare a test. Likewise, from the perspective of a test taker, there is also great variability with respect to the time and effort needed to obtain a desired grade or score on any given test. When a test developer constructs a test, the amount of time and effort is dependent upon the significance of the test itself, the proficiency of the test taker, the format of the test, class size, deadline of the test, and experience of the test developer.
The process of test construction has been aided in several ways. For one, many test developers were themselves students at one time, and therefore are able to modify or outright adopt questions from their previous tests. In some countries, book publishers often provide teaching packages that include test banks to university instructors who adopt their published books for their courses.[57] These test banks may contain up to four thousand sample test questions that have been peer-reviewed and time-tested. The instructor who chooses to use this testbank would only have to select a fixed number of test questions from this test bank to construct a test.
As with test constructions, the time needed for a test taker to prepare for a test is dependent upon the frequency of the test, the test developer, and the significance of the test. In general, nonstandardized tests that are short, frequent, and do not constitute a major portion of the test taker's overall course grade or score do not require the test taker to spend much time preparing for the test.
Unlike a nonstandardized test, the time needed by test takers to prepare for standardized tests is less variable and usually considerable. This is because standardized tests are usually uniform in scope, format, and difficulty and often have important consequences with respect to a test taker's future such as a test taker's eligibility to attend a specific university program or to enter a desired profession. It is not unusual for test takers to prepare for standardized tests by relying upon commercially available books that provide in-depth coverage of the standardized test or compilations of previous tests (e.g.,
Cheating
Cheating on a test is the process of using unauthorized means or methods to obtain a desired test score or grade. This may range from bringing and using notes during a closed book examination, to copying another test taker's answer or choice of answers during an individual test, to sending a paid proxy to take the test.[66]
Several common methods have been employed to combat cheating. They include the use of multiple proctors or invigilators during a testing period to monitor test takers. Test developers may construct multiple variants of the same test to be administered to different test takers at the same time, or write tests with few multiple-choice options, based on the theory that fully worked answers are difficult to imitate.[67] In some cases, instructors themselves may not administer their own tests but will leave the task to other instructors or invigilators, which may mean that the invigilators do not know the candidates, and thus some form of identification may be required. Finally, instructors or test providers may compare the answers of suspected cheaters on the test themselves to determine whether cheating did occur.
See also
- Academic dishonesty – Any type of cheating that occurs in relation to a formal academic exercise
- Homework, also known as Assignment (education) – Educational practice
- Bar examination – Test required to practice law in a specific jurisdiction
- Blue book exam, used in free response exams
- Computerized adaptive testing – Form of computer-based test that adapts to the examinee's ability level
- Computerized classification test
- Concept inventory – Knowledge assessment tool
- Cooper test – Physical fitness test, used by Law, Military, and Fire services
- Credential – Qualification or authority issued by a competent third party
- Driver's license – Document allowing one to drive a motorized vehicle
- Electronic assessment – Use of information technology in assessment
- E-scape – project at Goldsmiths University, London , a technology and approach that looks specifically at the assessment of creativity and collaboration.
- Educational software – Software intended for an educational purpose
- Test anxiety – Anxiety or stress triggered by exams
- General Educational Development – High school diploma test
- Grading in education – Standardized measurement of academic performance
- Harvard step test – Fitness test, a cardiovascular test
- Law
- Cross-examination – The interrogation of a witness called by one's opponent
- Direct examination – The questioning of a witness in a trial by the party who called the witness
- List of standardized tests in the United States
- Matriculation examination – Final examination before school graduation
- Medical College Admission Test – Standardized examination for prospective medical students in the United States and Canada
- Optical mark recognition – Capturing of human-marked data from document forms
- Performance testing– An assessment that requires the subject to actually perform a task or activity
- Physical examination – Process by which a medical professional investigates the body of a patient for signs of disease
- Pilot certification in the United States – Pilot certification
- Progress testing
- Project Talent – High School study (in the US)
- Vertical jump – Jump vertically in the air, a leg power test
- Trial and error – Method of problem-solving, a method of problem solving
International examinations
- Abitur – used in Germany.
- .
- International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme– international examination
- International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) – international examinations
- Leaving Certificate – Republic of Ireland.
- Matura/Maturita – used in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Italy, Liechtenstein, Hungary, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Ukraine; previously used in Albania.
- Nationella prov – used in Sweden
- Higher Grade, and Advanced Higher – used in Scotland
- Uttar Pradesh Subordinate Services Selection Commission – Organization authorized to conduct examinations in Uttar Pradesh state in India
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Further reading
- Airasian, P. (1994) "Classroom Assessment", Second Edition, NY: McGraw-Hill.
- Cangelosi, J. (1990) "Designing Tests for Evaluating Student Achievement". NY: Addison-Wesley.
- Gronlund, N. (1993) "How to make achievement tests and assessments", 5th edition, NY: Allyn and Bacon.
- Haladyna, T.M. & Downing, S.M. (1989) Validity of a Taxonomy of Multiple-Choice Item-Writing Rules. "Applied Measurement in Education", 2(1), 51–78.
- Monahan, T. (1998) The Rise of Standardized Educational Testing in the U.S. – A Bibliographic Overview.
- Phelps, R.P., Ed. (2008) Correcting Fallacies About Educational and Psychological Testing, American Psychological Association.
- Ravitch, Diane, "The Uses and Misuses of Tests" Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine, in The Schools We Deserve (New York: Basic Books, 1985), pp. 172–181.
- Wilson, N. (1997) Educational standards and the problem of error. Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol 6 No 10