The Crown
The Crown broadly represents the
The concept of the Crown as a
The term is also found in various expressions such as Crown land, which some countries refer to as public land or state land; as well as in some offices, such as minister of the Crown, Crown attorney, and Crown prosecutor.
Definition
The term the Crown does not have a single definition. Legal scholars Maurice Sunkin and Sebastian Payne opined, "the nature of the Crown has been taken for granted, in part because it is fundamental and, in part, because many academics have no idea what the term the Crown amounts to".
Warren J. Newman described the Crown is "a useful and convenient means of conveying, in a word, the compendious formal, executive and administrative powers and apparatus attendant upon the modern constitutional and monarchical state."[7]
The Lord Simon of Glaisdale stated, "the crown is a piece of bejewelled headgear under guard at the Tower of London; but, one that symbolises the powers of government, which were formerly wielded by the wearer of the crown".[5]
Concept
The concept of the Crown took form under the
As such, the physical crown and the property belonging to successive monarchs in perpetuity came to be separated from the person of the monarch and his or her private property. After several centuries of the monarch personally exercising supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power, these functions decreased as parliaments, ministries, and courts grew through the 13th century.[11] The term the Crown then developed into a means by which to differentiate the monarch's official functions from his personal choices and actions.[12] Even within mediaeval England, there was the doctrine of capacities separating the person of the king from his actions in the capacity of monarch.[13]
When the kingdom of England merged with those of Scotland and Ireland, the concept extended into the legal lexicons of the United Kingdom and its dependencies and overseas territories and, eventually, all of the independent Commonwealth realms. There are, thus, now many distinct crowns, as a legal concept, "worn by"—or many different offices of monarch occupied by—one person as sovereign (supreme monarch) of each country.[14] However, the Crown can also mean the pan-national institution shared by all 15 Commonwealth realms.[12]
In each Commonwealth realm, the term the Crown, at its broadest, now means the
The terms the state, the Crown,
Still, the king or queen is the employer of all government officials and staff (including the
The Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive,
Divisibility of the Crown
Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible.
The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, but separate, legal concept. To distinguish the institution's role in one jurisdiction from its place in another, Commonwealth law employs the expression the Crown
The powers of a realm's crown are exercised either by the monarch, personally, or by his or her representative on the
New Zealand
In New Zealand, the term the Crown (Māori: te Karauna[56]) is used to mostly mean the authority of government; its meaning changes in different contexts.[57][58] In the context of people considering the claims and settlements related to the Treaty of Waitangi, professor of history Alan Ward defines the Crown as "the people of New Zealand—including Māori themselves—acted through elected parliament and government."[59]
Crown Dependencies
In the Bailiwick of Guernsey, legislation refers to the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey[60] or the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick[61] and the law officers of the Crown of Guernsey submitted that, "the Crown in this context ordinarily means the Crown in right of the république of the Bailiwick of Guernsey"[62] and that this comprises "the collective governmental and civic institutions, established by and under the authority of the monarch, for the governance of these islands, including the states of Guernsey and legislatures in the other islands, the royal court and other courts, the lieutenant governor, parish authorities, and the Crown acting in and through the Privy Council".[63]
In the
Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in Right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in Right of the United Kingdom.[67]
British Overseas Territories
Following the Lords' decision in Ex parte Quark, 2005, it is held that the King, in exercising his authority over British Overseas Territories, does not act on the advice of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, but, in his role as king of each territory, with the exception of fulfilling the UK's international responsibilities for its territories. To comply with the court's decision, the territorial governors now act on the advice of each territory's executive and the UK government can no longer disallow legislation passed by territorial legislatures.[68]
In the courts
This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2021) |
In criminal proceedings, the state is the prosecuting party; the case is usually designated (in case citation) as R v [defendant],[69] where R can stand for either rex (if the current monarch is male) or regina (if the monarch is female), and the v stands for versus. For example, a criminal case against Smith might be referred to as R v Smith and verbally read as "the Crown against Smith".
The Crown is, in general,
In
Most jurisdictions in
In reporting on court proceedings in New Zealand, news reports will refer to the prosecuting lawyer (often called a Crown prosecutor, as in Canada and the United Kingdom) as representing the Crown; usages such as, "for the Crown, Joe Bloggs argued", being common.
The Crown can also be a plaintiff or defendant in civil actions to which the government of the Commonwealth realm in question is a party. Such crown proceedings are often subject to specific rules and limitations, such as the enforcement of judgments against the Crown. Qui tam lawsuits on behalf of the Crown were once common, but have been unusual since the Common Informers Act 1951 ended the practice of allowing such suits by common informers.
Crown forces
The term "Crown forces" has been used by Irish republicans and nationalists, including members of paramilitary groups, to refer to British security forces which operate in Ireland. The term was used by various iterations of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) during conflicts such as Irish War of Independence and the Troubles. As noted by Irish republican Danny Morrison, "[t]he term 'security forces' suggests legitimacy, which is why republicans prefer terms like 'the Brits' or 'the Crown Forces', which undermines their authority."[a][71] Due to the Irish War of Independence, "the phrase 'Crown Forces' came to represent something abhorrent in the Republican narrative".[72]
See also
Notes
- ^ Jurisdictions in which this prerogative does not apply include Cornwall, where unowned property becomes the property of the duke of Cornwall, and Lancashire, where it becomes the property of the duke of Lancaster.
- King Louis XIV: "L'État, c'est moi", or, "I am the state".[19] Robertson Davies stated in 1994, "the Crown is the consecrated spirit of Canada",[20] and past Ontario chairman of the Monarchist League of Canada Gary Toffoli opined, "the Queen is the legal embodiment of the state at both the national and the provincial levels [...] She is our sovereign and it is the role of the Queen, recognized by the constitutional law of Canada, to embody the state."[21]
- ^ As Peter Boyce put it, "the Crown as a concept cannot be disentangled from the person of the monarch, but standard reference to the Crown extends well beyond the Queen's person."[30]
- ^ Executives who are themselves servants of the Crown.[36]
- civil servants in Canada are not contracted by an abstraction called the state, but, rather, they are employed by the monarch, who "enjoys a general capacity to contract in accordance with the rule of ordinary law."[37]
- ^ For exceptions in the United Kingdom, see Crown Proceedings Act 1947.
- Danny Morrison's words, "[t]he term 'security forces' suggests legitimacy, which is why republicans prefer terms like 'the Brits' or 'the Crown Forces', which undermines their authority."[70]
References
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- ^ CharlotteDunn (4 June 2018). "Crown Dependencies". The Royal Family. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
- ^ Sunkin, Maurice; Payne, Sebastian (1999), The Nature of the Crown: A Legal and Political Analysis, Oxford: Oxford University Press
- ^ a b c Town Investments v Department for the Environment, Lord Morris of Borth-y-Gest, Lord Simon of Glaisdale, Lord Kilbrandon, Lord Edmund-Davies, 359 (House of Lords 1978).
- ^ Wade, William, "The Crown, Ministers, and Officials: Legal Status and Liability", in Sunkin, M.; Payne, S. (eds.), The Nature of the Crown, p. 24
- ^ Newman, Warren J. (2017), Lagassé, Philippe; MacDonald, Nicholas A. (eds.), "The Crown in the 21st Century" (PDF), Review of Constitutional Studies, Some Observations on the Queen, the Crown, the Constitution, and the Courts, 22 (1), Edmonton: Centre for Constitutional Studies: 56, retrieved 5 June 2023
- ^ Torrance 2023, pp. 9–10
- ^ Maitland, Frederic (1901). "The Crown as Corporation". Law Quarterly Review (17): 131–46.
- ^ Nguyen, Nam H. (18 March 2018). Essential 25000 English-Cebuano Law Dictionary. Nam H Nguyen.
- ^ Torrance, David (11 January 2023), The Crown and the Constitution (PDF), House of Commons Library, p. 8, retrieved 1 March 2023
- ^ a b Torrance 2023, p. 7
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-5099-3103-3, retrieved 2 May 2023
- ^ Elizabeth II (2005), "46.1.b", Interpretation Act, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada (published 1 April 2005), retrieved 7 August 2009
- ^ a b Forsey, Helen (1 October 2010). "As David Johnson Enters Rideau Hall..." The Monitor. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
- ^ Department of Canadian Heritage, Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > The crown in Canada, Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 19 February 2009
- ^ Department of Canadian Heritage (2010), Canada: Symbols of Canada (PDF), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 3, retrieved 4 December 2016
- ^ Derwyn, Shea (10 April 1996), "Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1720", Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee on the Legislative Assembly, Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario, archived from the original on 11 June 2011, retrieved 16 May 2009
- ISBN 978-0-88924-259-3.
- ^ Toffoli, Gary (10 April 1996), "Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1620", Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee on the Legislative Assembly, Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario, archived from the original on 11 June 2011, retrieved 16 May 2009
- ^ a b Table Research Branch of the House of Commons (March 2008). "Compendium of Procedure" (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
- ^ Cabinet Secretary and Clerk of the Executive Council (April 2004), Executive Government Processes and Procedures in Saskatchewan: A Procedures Manual (PDF), Regina: Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan, p. 10, retrieved 30 July 2009
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- ^ Bowden, James; Philippe, Lagassé (6 December 2012), "Succeeding to the Canadian throne", Ottawa Citizen, archived from the original on 10 January 2013, retrieved 6 December 2012
- ^ Elizabeth II (9 October 2012), "83.1", Financial Administration Act, Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 6 December 2012
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- ^ Elizabeth II (2004). "A First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord" (PDF). 1. Ottawa: Assembly of First Nations. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2005. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-46536-6. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
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- ^ Department of National Defence. "DCBA 414 011759Z Apr 09 MFSI Annual Rates for the Fiscal Year 2009/2010". Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- ^ "Crown Entities Act 2004". New Zealand Legislation. Parliamentary Counsel Office. 25 February 2024.
- ^ Canada (PDF) (Map). Queen's Printer for Canada. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- ^ George V (9 April 1925), "s. 180", Law of Property Act 1925, London: King's Printer
- ^ Maitland, Frederic (1901), "The Crown as Corporation", Law Quarterly Review (17): 131–46
- ^ The Law Commission (November 1996), "Paper 143: The execution of deeds and documents by or on behalf of bodies corporate" (PDF), Halsbury's Laws of England (Affidavit), 9 (4 ed.), Lincoln County, Nevada (published 1974), 1206
- ^ Maitland, Frederic William (1908), The Constitutional History of England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 418
- S2CID 149843556
- ^ Lagassé, Philippe (2 November 2021), The State, The Crown, and Parliament, lecture given at Carleton University, Ottawa
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Saunders, Cheryl (2015). "The Concept of the Crown". Melbourne University Law Review. 38: 883.
- ^ Lords of Appeal, Ex parte Quark, 2005
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- H. Frowde. pp. 253, 257, 258.
- ISBN 978-0-7748-0259-8.
- ^ The Australian law journal. Vol. 52. North Ryde: Law Book Co. of Australasia Ltd. 1978. pp. 58, 203, 207. 3910867.
- ^ [49][50][51][52]
- ^ Ministry of Natural Resources (24 January 2006), Disposition of Public Land to Other Governments and Agencies (PDF), Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario, p. 2, at 3.2.B, retrieved 25 April 2010,
When public land is required by the federal government or one of its departments, or any provincial ministry, the land itself is not transferred. What is transferred is the responsibility to manage the lands on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen (HMQ). This is accomplished by an Order-in-Council or a Minister's Order that transfers management of land either from HMQ in right of Ontario to HMQ in right of Canada as represented by a department or to HMQ in right of Ontario as represented by another ministry. The Crown does not transfer ownership to itself.
- ^ Clayton Utz. "Retail Leases Comparative Analysis - The Act Binds the Crown". Clayton Utz. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
- ^ "Karauna". Te Aka Māori Dictionary. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
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- ^ "Review of the Roles of the Jersey Crown officers" (PDF). Retrieved 7 November 2011.
- ^ "It's a power thing…". Guernsey Press. 21 June 2010. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
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- ^ "Written Question to H.M. Attorney General". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
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- ^ Overseas Territories: Seventh Report of Session 2007–08, Vol. 2: Oral and Written Evidence. London, UK: The Stationery Office, 6 July 2008, pp. 49, 296–297
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- ^ Morrison, Danny (24–26 January 2004). "Saving 'Bobby Sands Street' > Words of Freedom". Irish History. Irlandinitiative Heidelberg. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
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- ISBN 978-1-84765-856-2. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
Because of the events of the War of Independence, the phrase 'Crown Forces' came to represent something abhorrent in the Republican narrative.
Further reading
- Sunkin, Maurice; Payne, Sebastian, eds. (1999). The Nature of the Crown: A Legal and Political Analysis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-826273-2.