The Holocaust in Poland
Polish Jews | |
Survivors | 157,000–375,000 in the Soviet Union[1] 50,000 liberated from Nazi concentration camps[2] 30,000–60,000 in hiding[2] |
---|
The Holocaust in Poland was the ghettoization, robbery, deportation, and murder of Jews in
In 1939, Nazi Germany
After the war, survivors faced difficulties in regaining their property and rebuilding their lives. Especially after the Kielce pogrom, many fled to displaced persons camps in Allied-occupied Germany.
Background
Anti-Semitism became a state ideology in Germany after the Nazis gained power, but even before that, Eastern European Jews, called in Germany Ostjuden held a particularly low position in German perception.
In Poland, after the beginning of the
Invasion of Poland
The German Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war from the United Kingdom and France.[20] During the invasion of Poland as many as 16,000 civilians, hostages, and prisoners of war may have been shot by the German invaders;[21] there was also a great deal of looting.[22] Special units known as Einsatzgruppen followed the army to eliminate any possible resistance.[23] Already during the hostilities, the Germans carried out pogroms against the Jewish population, for example, 600 people were murdered in Przemyśl , 200 in Częstochowa, and 200 were burned in a synagogue in Będzin.[24] Thousands of Jews were chased away to areas occupied by Soviet troops.[24] 6,000 Polish soldiers of Jewish descent were killed and 60,000 were taken prisoner.[25]
Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland.
The rest of Poland was
Resettlement plans
As a result of expulsions and escapes, about 500,000 Jews lived in the lands incorporated into the Reich at the beginning of the German occupation.[24] The Germans planned to deport all Jews from these territories by the end of 1940, by which time the plan was to place them in ghettos.[24] They tried to concentrate Jews in the Lublin District of the General Government. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths.[38] Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of Hans Frank, the appointed head of the General Government, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews.[39][40] Overall, between 80-90,000 Jews were deported to the General Government from Wartheland in that time.[41] At the same time, escapes, expulsions and murders continued unabated. As a result of these, only 1,800 Jews lived in the province of West Prussia in February 1940.[24] In the Wartheland, their number dropped to 260,000.[42] Deportations to the General Government resumed in January 1941, but only 2140 Jews and 20,000 Poles were deported from Wartheland.[41]
At this point, efforts to concentrate Jews in a compact territory were abandoned, the focus was on separating and enclosing Jews in ghettos. However, such plans were not completely dropped. After the conquest of France in 1940, the Nazis considered deporting Jews to French Madagascar, but this proved impossible.[43][44] The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews.[43][40] After the attack on the Soviet Union, plans were made to remove the Jewish population to the swampy areas of Polesia.[45] In the fall of 1941, any such plans were abandoned.[45]
Ghettoization
During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone.[46] Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Government were required to perform forced labor.[47] In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands.[48] Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings.[47]
The first
The
Łódź ghetto more Jews than all of the Netherlands. More Jews lived in the city of Kraków than in all of Italy, and virtually any medium-sized town in Poland had a larger Jewish population than all of Scandinavia. All of southeast Europe – Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Greece – had fewer Jews than the original four districts of the General Government.[56]
The plight of Jews in war-torn Poland could be divided into stages defined by the
Ghettos were established both in the territory incorporated into the Reich and in the General Government. Characteristic of the Wartheland were the so-called "rural ghettos," which encompassed several contiguous villages.[41] The Germans also set up ghettos in areas of eastern Poland occupied as a result of the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Most were established in the Galicia district and the Białystok District.[62] In the fall of 1942, there were more than 400 ghettos on Polish soil.[62]
Extermination of Jews in Eastern Poland
Germany and its allies
Parallel to Operation Reinhard, which was organised in the General Government, the final mass murder of the Jewish population was organised in eastern Poland in the spring and summer of 1942.[64] Jews from the Galicia district were transported to the extermination centres at Belzec and Sobibor, among them some 150,000 Jews deported to Galicia by the Romanian authorities.[64]
Liquidation of the ghettos
Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Government were affected by various goals of the SS (Schutzstaffel), military, and civil administration; stretching from purely racial one to the more pragmatic, such as the need to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, in order enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the black market, to avoid hunger and increase of the resistance among them.[74] By mid-1942, Nazi leaders decided to allow only 300,000 Jews to survive in the General Government by the end of the year for forced labor;[74] for the most part, only those working in armaments production were spared.[75] On 19 July, Himmler decreed the "resettlement of the entire Jewish population of the General Government should have been implemented and completed by 31 December 1942"; henceforth, Jews would only be allowed to live in Warsaw, Częstochowa, Kraków, and Majdanek.[76] The majority of ghettos were liquidated in mass executions nearby, especially if they were not near a train station. Larger ghettos were more commonly liquidated during multiple deportations to extermination camps.[77][78] During this campaign around 1.8 million Jews[79] were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust.[80]
In order to reduce resistance the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible.
Extermination camps
The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice.[90] The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby.[96] People were typically deported to the camps in overcrowded cattle cars. As many as 150 people were forced into a single boxcar. Many died en route, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports.[97][98] Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations.[99] Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber.[100] Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes.[95][101] The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning.[102] At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20-25 percent were separated out for labor,[103] although many of these prisoners died later on.[104]
Belzec,
Camp | Location | Number of Jews killed | Killing technology | Planning began | Mass gassing duration |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chełmno | Wartheland[113] |
150,000[113] | Gas vans[113] |
July 1941[113] | 8 December 1941–April 1943 and April–July 1944[114] |
Belzec | Lublin District[113] | 440,823–596,200[79] | Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[113] | October 1941[114] | 17 March 1942–December 1942[114] |
Sobibor | Lublin District[113] | 170,618–238,900[79] | Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[113] | Late 1941 or March 1942[115] | May 1942–October 1942[115] |
Treblinka | Warsaw District[113] | 780,863–951,800[79] | Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust[113] | April 1942[113] | 23 July 1942–October 1943[113] |
Auschwitz II–Birkenau
|
East Upper Silesia[113] | 900,000–1,000,000[113] | Stationary gas chamber, hydrogen cyanide[113] | September 1941 (built as POW camp)[116][113] |
February 1942–October 1944[113] |
General Government
Systematic murder began in the Lublin District in mid-March 1942. The Lublin Ghetto was emptied between 16 March and 20 April; many Jews were shot in the ghetto and 30,000 were deported to Belzec.[117] Most victims from the Lublin District were sent to Sobibor except 2,000 forced laborers imprisoned at Majdanek. The killing was interrupted on 10 June, to resume in August and September.[118] At the same time as these killings, many Jews were deported from Germany and Slovakia to ghettos in the Lublin District that had previously been cleared.[119]
From the end of May and especially since the cessation of deportations in Lublin, thousands of Jews were deported from the
The Warsaw Ghetto was cleared between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, a newly built extermination camp 50 kilometres (30 mi) distant, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late.[121]
During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the Radom District were sent to Treblinka.[122][123]
There was practically no Jewish resistance in the General Government in 1942.
German-annexed areas
Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Wartheland and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz.[129]
Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings
Jews resisted the Nazis with not only armed struggle, but also spiritual and cultural opposition that upheld their dignity despite the inhumane conditions of life in the ghettos.
The
International response
On 26 June 1942, BBC services in all languages publicized a report by the Jewish Social-Democratic Bund and other resistance groups and transmitted by the Polish government-in-exile, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the United Nations adopted a joint declaration condemning the systematic murder of Jews.[136]
Escape, hiding and rescue
Many Jews attempted to escape death by jumping from trains, but the most of these immediately returned to the ghetto to avoid the risk of being denounced by Poles, which would lead to immediate death.[79][137] Ability to speak Polish was a key factor in managing to survive,[138] as were financial resources to pay helpers.[139]
The death penalty was threatened for individuals hiding Jews and their families.[140] Each village head was responsible for handing over all Jews and escaped Soviet prisoners of war, partisans, and other strangers to the German occupation authorities under the threat of collective punishment for the village.[141] Although one study found that at least 700 Poles were executed for helping Jews,[142] the death penalty was not always carried out in practice.[143][140] Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or money; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out.[144][140][145] It was also not uncommon for the same people to help some Jews yet hunting down or kill others.[140][146]
In September 1942, on the initiative of
An estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Polish Jews survived in hiding.[2] Some rescuers faced hostility or violence for their actions after the war.[149]
Some Polish peasants participated in German-organized
In addition to peasantry and individual collaborators, the German authorities also
The Polish right-wing National Armed Forces (Narodowe Siły Zbrojne, or NSZ) – a nationalist, anti-communist organization,[157][158][page needed][159] widely perceived as anti-Semitic[160][161][162][163][164] – also collaborated with the Germans on several occasions, killing or giving away Jewish partisans to the German authorities,[161]: 149 and murdering Jewish refugees.[165][166][167]
Among some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists who fled to
The existence of Sonderdienst paramilitary formations of Germans from Poland was a grave danger to those who attempted to help ghettoized Jews in cities with sizable German and pro-German minorities, as in the case of the Izbica, and Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghettos, among many others.[citation needed]
Death toll
Half of all Jewish Holocaust victims, around 3 million, were from Poland.[173][174] It is estimated that about 350,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust.[175] Some 230,000 of them survived in the USSR and the Soviet-controlled territories of Poland, including men and women who escaped from areas occupied by Germany.[175][176] After World War II, over 150,000 Polish Jews according to Grzegorz Berendt or 180,000 according to David Engel, were repatriated or expelled back to new Poland along with the younger men conscripted to the Red Army from the Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust.[177] Gunnar S. Paulsson estimated that 30,000 Polish Jews survived in the labor camps;[178] but according to Engel as many as 70,000–80,000 of them were liberated from camps in Germany and Austria alone, except that declaring their own nationality was of no use to those who did not intend to return.[179] Dariusz Stola found that the most plausible estimates for Jews who survived in hiding were between 30,000 and 60,000.[2]
Aftermath
The
Many non-Jews had obtained property or jobs vacated by Jews during the war, and refused to give up these gains to Jewish survivors.[185] The elimination of the Polish aristocracy as well as Polish Jews cleared the way for the foundation of an ethnically Polish middle class.[186]
An estimated 650 to 1,200 Jews were killed in Poland after the war.[187] The most notable incident was the Kielce pogrom in July 1946, which cost 42 lives.[188]
The Polish state held trials of war criminals under the decree of 31 August 1944. Historian Andrew Kornbluth estimates that "several dozen Poles were executed for denouncing, capturing, and killing their Jewish neighbors during the war", and thousands more perpetrators were investigated or received a lesser sentence.[189]
Emigration
Many Jews, fearing for their lives, fled to displaced persons camps in Germany.[185] The pogrom prompted General Spychalski of PWP from wartime Warsaw,[190] to sign a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without Western visas or Polish exit permits.[191][192] This also served to strengthen the government's acceptance among the anti-Communist right, as well as weaken the British hold in the Middle East.[179] Most refugees crossing the new borders left Poland without a valid passport.[192] Uninterrupted traffic across the Polish borders increased dramatically.[193][179][194] By the spring of 1947 only 90,000 Jews remained in Poland.[195][196] Britain demanded that Poland (among others) halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.[197]
Around 13,000 Polish Jews left the country between 1968 and 1972 because of a state antisemitic campaign.[174] In 2019, the Polish Jewish population was estimated at 4,000.[198]
Legacy
Although the postwar Jewish community wanted to make Treblinka the main memorial site, the Polish government decided to instead build a memorial at the former Warsaw Ghetto and to focus memorialization efforts at Auschwitz.[199] During the communist era, the differences between different persecuted groups were elided.[174] Memorials were established at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka during the 1960s as a reaction to West German trials, but these camps remain much less well known.[200] The most well-known Holocaust museum in the world is the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum[201] which receives about 2 million visitors per year as of 2021[update].[112] Since 1988, the March of the Living has been held annually at the site of the former camp.[202] The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened in 2014 on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto and is connected with earlier memorials such as the 1948 Monument to the Ghetto Heroes and the memorial at the Umschlagplatz.[203] The phenomenon of Holocaust tourism exploded after 1989 due to reduced travel restrictions and brought along with it increasing tourism and commercialization that sometimes was criticized as kitsch.[202]
In 1999, the
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close contacts in the Polish community and decent knowledge of the Polish language were extremely useful, if not essential, for securing shelter... A few other cases were uncovered wherein a local Pole committed to hiding a group of Jews and then subsequently denounced or murdered the charges, transitioning from helper to perpetrator.
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Files of postwar trials of collaborators, many of whom committed crimes against Jews, and other materials show that the phenomenon of paid help was far from marginal. A Jew with money and other assets had much greater chances of being rescued than a penniless one.
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When the Soviets occupied eastern Galicia, some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists fled to the General Government. In 1940 the Germans began to set up military training units of Ukrainians, and in the spring of 1941 Ukrainian units were established by the Wehrmacht.
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- .
Keeping in mind that these cases are drawn from published memoirs and from cases on file at Yad Vashem and the Jewish Historical Institute, it is probable that the 5,000 or so Poles who have been recognised as 'Righteous Among the Nations' so far represent only the tip of the iceberg, and that the true number of rescuers who meet the Yad Vashem 'gold standard' is 20, 50, perhaps even 100 times higher (p. 23, § 2; available with purchase).
- ^ (PDF) on December 3, 2013
- ^ Lukas (1989), pp. 5, 13, 111, 201, "Introduction". Also in: Lukas (2001), p. 13.
- ISBN 978-0191512032. Prof. Czesław Madajczyk ascribed 2,000,000 Polish-Jewish victims to extermination camps, and 700,000 others to ghettos, labour camps, and hands-on murder operations. His stated figure of 2,770,000 victims is regarded as low but realistic. Madajczyk estimated also 890,000 Polish-Jewish survivors of World War II; some 110,000 of them in the Displaced Person camps across the rest of Europe, and 500,000 in the USSR; bringing the number up to 610,000 Jews outside the country in 1945., are substantially different.
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:|work=
ignored (help) Note: some other estimates, see for example: Engel (2005) - ^ ISBN 978-0306816505.
- ^ a b Fertacz, Sylwester (2005). "Carving of Poland's map" [Krojenie mapy Polski: Bolesna granica]. Magazyn Społeczno-Kulturalny Śląsk. Archived from the original on April 25, 2009 – via Internet Archive, June 5, 2016.
- ^ Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)for supplementary data.)
- ^ a b Gerlach 2016, p. 354.
- ^ Kornbluth 2021, p. 273.
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- ^ Cichopek 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Kornbluth 2021, p. 274.
- Berihahorganization under Cwi Necer was requested to keep the involvement of MSZ and MON a secret.(24 in PDF) The migration reached its zenith in 1946, resulting in 150,000 Jews leaving Poland.(21 in PDF)
- ^ Aleksiun, Natalia. "Beriḥah". YIVO.
Suggested reading: Arieh Josef Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus ... ," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175.
- ^ a b Hakohen (2003), p. 70, 'Poland'.
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This gigantic effort, known by the Hebrew code word Brichah(flight), accelerated powerfully after the Kielce pogrom in July 1946
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Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.
- ^ Bazyler et al. 2019, p. 311.
- ^ Lehnstaedt 2021, p. 66.
- ^ Lehnstaedt 2021, pp. 62, 66.
- ^ Grzyb 2020, pp. 620–621.
- ^ a b Grzyb 2020, p. 630.
- ^ Grzyb 2020, p. 628.
- ^ Kornbluth 2021, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Kornbluth 2021, p. 1.
- ^ Kornbluth 2021, pp. 1, 271.
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Further reading
- ISBN 978-965-308-524-4.
- Biskupska, Jadwiga (January 27, 2022). "Chapter 7 - Matters of Faith — Catholic Intelligentsia and the Church". Survivors: Warsaw Under Nazi Occupation (Hardcover) (New ed.). ISBN 978-1316515587. ISBN 1316515583.
- Tyndorf, Ryszard; Zieliński, Zygmunt (2023). Wartime Rescue of Jews by the Polish Catholic Clergy: The Testimony of Survivors and Rescuers (PDF). Vol. 1. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. ISBN 978-83-8288-040-3. — Free downloadable book.
- Tyndorf, Ryszard; Zieliński, Zygmunt (2023). Wartime Rescue of Jews by the Polish Catholic Clergy: The Testimony of Survivors and Rescuers (PDF). Vol. 2. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. ISBN 978-83-8288-088-5. ISBN 978-83-8288-087-8. — Free downloadable book.