Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights | |
---|---|
Created | 1948 |
Ratified | 10 December 1948 |
Location | Palais de Chaillot, Paris |
Author(s) | Draft Committee[a] |
Purpose | Human rights |
Official website | |
un.org/udhr | |
Full text | |
Universal Declaration of Human Rights at Wikisource |
Rights |
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Theoretical distinctions |
Human rights |
Rights by beneficiary |
Other groups of rights |
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is an international document adopted by the
A foundational text in the history of human and civil rights, the Declaration consists of 30 articles detailing an individual's "basic rights and fundamental freedoms" and affirming their universal character as inherent, inalienable, and applicable to all human beings.[1] Adopted as a "common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations", the UDHR commits nations to recognize all humans as being "born free and equal in dignity and rights" regardless of "nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status".[3]
The Declaration is considered a milestone document for its universalist language, which makes no reference to a particular culture, political system, or religion.[4][5] It directly inspired the development of international human rights law, and was the first step in the formulation of the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966 and came into force in 1976. Although not legally binding, the contents of the UDHR have been elaborated and incorporated into subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, and national constitutions and legal codes.[6][7][8]
All 193 member states of the United Nations have ratified at least one of the nine binding treaties influenced by the Declaration, with the vast majority ratifying four or more.[1] While there is a wide consensus that the declaration itself is non-binding and not part of customary international law, there is also a consensus that many of its provisions are binding and have passed into customary social law,[9][10] although courts in some nations have been more restrictive on its legal effect.[11][12] Nevertheless, the UDHR has influenced legal, political, and social developments on both the global and national levels, with its significance partly evidenced by its 530 translations.[13]
Structure and content
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles.[14] Its final structure took form in the second draft prepared by French jurist René Cassin, who worked on the initial draft prepared by Canadian legal scholar John Peters Humphrey.
The Declaration consists of the following:
- The preamble sets out the historical and social causes that led to the necessity of drafting the Declaration.
- Articles 1–2 establish the basic concepts of dignity, liberty, and equality.
- Articles 3–5 establish other individual rights, such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery and torture.
- Articles 6–11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defence when violated.
- Articles 12–17 set forth the rights of the individual towards the community, including residence within each state, the right of property and the right to a nationality.
- Articles 18–21 sanction the so-called "constitutional liberties" and spiritual, public, and political freedoms, such as freedom of thought, opinion, expression, religion and conscience, word, peaceful association of the individual, and receiving and imparting information and ideas through any media.
- Articles 22–27 sanction an individual's economic, social and cultural rights, including healthcare. It upholds an expansive right to an adequate standard of living, and makes special mention of care given to those in motherhood or childhood.
- Articles 28–30 establish the general means of exercising these rights, the areas in which the rights of the individual cannot be applied, the duty of the individual to society, and the prohibition of the use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organization.[15]
Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.[16] Articles 1 and 2—with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood—served as the foundation blocks. The seven paragraphs of the preamble, setting out the reasons for the Declaration, represent the steps leading up to the temple. The main body of the Declaration forms the four columns. The first column (articles 3–11) constitutes rights of the individual, such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery. The second column (articles 12–17) constitutes the rights of the individual in civil and political society. The third column (articles 18–21) is concerned with spiritual, public, and political freedoms, such as freedom of religion and freedom of association. The fourth column (articles 22–27) sets out social, economic, and cultural rights. Finally, the last three articles provide the pediment which binds the structure together, as they emphasize the mutual duties of every individual to one another and to society.[16]
History
Background
During
The drafting committee
In June 1946, the
Canadian
Creation and drafting
Humphrey is credited with devising the "blueprint" for the Declaration, while Cassin composed the first draft.
In her memoirs, Roosevelt commented on the debates and discussions that informed the UDHR, describing one such exchange during the Drafting Committee's first session in June 1947:
Dr. Chang was a pluralist and held forth in charming fashion on the proposition that there is more than one kind of ultimate reality. The Declaration, he said, should reflect more than simply Western ideas and Dr. Humphrey would have to be eclectic in his approach. His remark, though addressed to Dr. Humphrey, was really directed at Dr. Malik, from whom it drew a prompt retort as he expounded at some length the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas. Dr. Humphrey joined enthusiastically in the discussion, and I remember that at one point Dr. Chang suggested that the Secretariat might well spend a few months studying the fundamentals of Confucianism![29]
In May 1948, roughly a year after its creation, the Drafting Committee held its second and final session, where it considered the comments and suggestions of member states and international bodies, principally the United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information, which took place the prior March and April; the Commission on the Status of Women, a body within ECOSOC that reported on the state of women's rights worldwide; and the Ninth International Conference of American States, held in Bogota, Colombia from March to May 1948, which adopted the South American-based American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the world's first general international human rights instrument.[36] Delegates and consultants from several United Nations bodies, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations also attended and submitted suggestions.[37] It was also hoped that an International Bill of Human Rights with legal force could be drafted and submitted for adoption alongside the Declaration.[36]
The final draft
Upon the session's conclusion on 21 May 1948, the Committee submitted to the Commission on Human Rights a redrafted text of the "International Declaration of Human Rights" and the "International Covenant of Human Rights", which together would form an International Bill of Rights.[36] The redrafted Declaration was further examined and discussed by the Commission on Human Rights in its third session in Geneva 21 May through 18 June 1948.[38] The so-called "Geneva text" was circulated among member states and subject to several proposed amendments; for example, Hansa Mehta of India notably suggested that the Declaration assert that "all human beings are created equal", instead of "all men are created equal", to better reflect gender equality.[39]
Charles Theodore Te Water of South Africa fought very hard to have the word dignity removed from the declaration, saying that "dignity had no universal standard and that it was not a 'right'".[40] Te Water believed--correctly, as it turned out--that listing human dignity as a human right would lead to criticism of the apartheid system that had just been introduced by the new National Party government of South Africa.[40] Malik in response stated that Prime Minister Jan Smuts of South Africa had played an important role in drafting the United Nations Charter in 1945, and it was Smuts who inserted the word dignity as a human right into the charter.[40] Despite te Water's efforts, the word dignity was included in the declaration as a human right.[40]
Approval
With a vote of 12 in favour, none opposed, and four abstaining, the CHR approved the proposed Declaration, though was unable to examine the contents and implementation of the proposed Covenant.[41] The Commission forwarded the approved text of the Declaration, as well as the Covenant, to the Economic and Social Council for its review and approval during its seventh session in July and August 1948.[42] The Council adopted Resolution 151(VII) of 26 August 1948, transmitting the draft International Declaration of Human Rights to the UN General Assembly.[42]
The Third Committee of the General Assembly, which convened from 30 September to 7 December 1948 during the third session of the United Nations General Assembly, held 81 meetings concerning the draft Declaration, including debating and resolving 168 proposals for amendments by United Nations member states.[43][44] On its 178th meeting on 6 December, the Third Committee adopted the Declaration with 29 votes in favour, none opposed and seven abstentions.[43] The document was subsequently submitted to the wider General Assembly for its consideration on 9 and 10 December 1948.
Adoption
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the
Eleanor Roosevelt is credited with having been instrumental in mustering support for the Declaration's adoption, both in her native U.S. and across the world, owing to her ability to appeal to different and often opposing political blocs.[50]
The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate on the Declaration's adoption.
The
The 48 countries that voted in favour of the Declaration are:[55]
- Afghanistan
- Argentina
- Australia
- Belgium
- Bolivia
- Brazil
- Burma
- Canada[a]
- Chile
- China
- Colombia
- Costa Rica
- Cuba
- Denmark
- Dominican Republic
- Ecuador
- Egypt
- El Salvador
- Ethiopia
- France
- Greece
- Guatemala
- Haiti
- Iceland
- India
- Iran
- Iraq
- Lebanon
- Liberia
- Luxembourg
- Mexico
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Nicaragua
- Norway
- Pakistan
- Panama
- Paraguay
- Peru
- Philippines
- Siam
- Sweden
- Syria
- Turkey
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Uruguay
- Venezuela
- a. ^ Despite the central role played by the Canadian John Peters Humphrey, the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration's draft, but later voted in favour of the final draft in the General Assembly.[56]
Eight countries abstained:[55]
Two countries did not vote:
Current UN member states, particularly in Africa gained sovereignty later, or in Europe and the Pacific were under administration due to the recently concluded World War II, joining the organization later, which accounts for the comparatively smaller number of states who participated in the historic vote.[57]
International Human Rights Day
10 December, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, is celebrated annually as World Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and of human rights in general. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year-long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us".[58] Likewise, the 70th anniversary in 2018 was marked by the global #StandUpForHumanRights campaign, which targeted youth.[59]
Impact
Significance
At the time of the Declaration's significance by the General Assembly in 1948, Eleanor Roosevelt said:[60]
In giving our approval to the declaration today, it is of primary importance that we keep clearly in mind the basic character of the document. It is not a treaty; it is not an international agreement. It is not and does not purport to be a statement of law or of legal obligation. It is a declaration of basic principles of human rights and freedoms, to be stamped with the approval of the General Assembly by formal vote of its members, and to serve as a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations.
The UDHR is considered groundbreaking for providing a comprehensive and universal set of principles in a secular, apolitical document that explicitly transcends cultures, religions, legal systems, and political ideologies.[5] Its claim to universality has been described as "boundlessly idealistic" and the "most ambitious feature".[61]
The Declaration was officially adopted as a bilingual document in
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures that secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the text as a declaration, rather than as a treaty, because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States.[69] Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been incorporated into or influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, subnational, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights. These kinds of measures focus on some principles that regard every culture/community especially when martial status take place or inheritance. In other words, every culture has its own norms and every individual is allowed to practice them unless he/she use them as a source of power.
The Declaration's all-encompassing provisions serve as a "yardstick" and point of reference by which countries' commitments to human rights are judged, such as through the treaty bodies and other mechanisms of various human rights treaties that monitor implementation.[50]
Legal effect
In international law, a declaration is distinct from a treaty in that it generally states aspirations or understandings among the parties, rather than binding obligations.
Nevertheless, the status of the Declaration as a legally enforceable document varies widely around the world: some countries have incorporated it into their domestic laws, while other countries consider it merely a statement of ideals, with no binding provisions.[71]
Many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of
The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding United Nations human rights covenants: the
National law
According to a 2022 study, the UDHR "significantly accelerated the adoption of a particular set of [national] constitutional rights."[82] One scholar estimates that at least 90 national constitutions drafted since the Declaration's adoption in 1948 "contain statements of fundamental rights which, where they do not faithfully reproduce the provisions of the Universal Declaration, are at least inspired by it."[83] At least 20 African nations that attained independence in the decades immediately following 1948 explicitly referenced the UDHR in their constitutions.[83] As of 2014, the constitutions that still directly cite the Declaration are those of Afghanistan, Benin, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Haiti, Mali, Mauritania, Nicaragua, Niger, Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Somalia, Spain, Togo, and Yemen.[83] Moreover, the constitutions of Portugal, Romania, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Spain compel their courts to "interpret" constitutional norms consistently with the Universal Declaration.[84]
Judicial and political figures in many nations have directly invoked the UDHR as an influence or inspiration on their courts, constitutions, or legal codes. Indian courts have ruled the Indian Constitution "[embodies] most of the articles contained in the Declaration".[85] Nations as diverse as Antigua, Chad, Chile, Kazakhstan, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Zimbabwe have derived constitutional and legal provisions from the Declaration.[83] In some cases, specific provisions of the UDHR are incorporated or otherwise reflected in national law. The right to health or to protection of health is found in the constitutions of Belgium, Kyrgyzstan, Paraguay, Peru, Thailand, and Togo; constitutional obligations on the government to provide health services exist in Armenia, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Finland, South Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Paraguay, Thailand, and Yemen.[85]
A survey of U.S. cases through 1988 found five references to the Declaration by the United States Supreme Court; sixteen references by federal courts of appeal; twenty-four references by federal district courts; one reference by a bankruptcy court; and several references by five state courts.[86] Likewise, research conducted in 1994 identified 94 references to the Declaration by federal and state courts across the U.S.[87]
In 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law", and that the political branches of the U.S. federal government can "scrutinize" the nation's obligations to international instruments and their enforceability.[12] However, U.S. courts and legislatures may still use the Declaration to inform or interpret laws concerned with human rights,[88] a position shared by the courts of Belgium, the Netherlands, India, and Sri Lanka.[88]
Reaction
Praise and support
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable activists, jurists, and political leaders.
As a pillar of international human rights, the UDHR enjoys widespread support among international and nongovernmental organizations. The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH), one of the oldest human rights organizations, has as its core mandate the promotion of the respect for all rights set out in the Declaration, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.[94][95] Amnesty International, the third oldest international human rights organization,[96] has regularly observed Human Rights Day and organized worldwide events to bring awareness and support of the UDHR.[97] Some organizations, such as the Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee have developed curriculum or programmes to educate young people on the UDHR.[98][99][100]
Specific provisions of the UDHR are cited or elaborated by
Criticism
Muslim-majority countries
Most
Moreover, some Muslim diplomats would later help draft other United Nations human rights treaties. For example,
In 1982, the Iranian diplomat to the United Nations, who represented the country's newly installed Islamic republic, stated that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition" that could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with sharīʿa law.[109]
On 30 June 2000, member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, which represents most of the Muslim world,[citation needed] officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam,[105][110] an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah", without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations". The Cairo Declaration is widely acknowledged to be a response to the UDHR, and uses similar universalist language, albeit derived solely from Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).[111]
Regarding the promulgation of the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, T. Jeremy Gunn, Professor of Law and Political Science at the International University of Rabat in Morocco, has stated:
the twenty-two-member
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief.[105]
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration's alleged Western and secularist bias.[105] Abdulaziz Sachedina observes that Muslims broadly agree with the Declaration's universalist premise, which is shared by Islam, but differ on specific contents, which many find "insensitive to particular Muslim cultural values, especially when it comes to speaking about individual rights in the context of collective and family values in Muslim society".[112]: 50–51 However, he notes that most Muslim scholars, while opposing the inherently secular framework of the document, do respect and acknowledge some of its "foundations".[112]: 50–51 Sachedina further argues that many Christians similarly criticized the Declaration for allegedly reflecting a secular and liberal bias in opposition to certain religious values.[112]: 50–51
Kazakh
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality" of the assumptions on which it is based is—at the very least—problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.[114]
Faisal Kutty, a Muslim Canadian human rights activist, opines that a "strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home [...]. It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights."[115] Irene Oh, director of the peace studies programme at Georgetown University, has argued that Muslim reservations towards some provisions of the UDHR, and the broader debate about the document's secular and Western bias, could be resolved through mutual dialogue grounded in comparative descriptive ethics.[116]
"The Right to Refuse to Kill"
Groups such as
American Anthropological Association
The
- The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences.
- Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered.
- Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole.[122]
Bangkok Declaration
During the lead-up to the
The challenges that affect the Declaration Today
There are a few things that can be a danger to the Declaration. This includes high rise in crime in many places throughout the world. There are many gangs and terrorist groups that are increasing. These groups are making their own laws and are creating challenges for the Declaration. Chidi Anselm Odinkalu explains more in depth about the many more challenges in his article [1].
See also
Non-binding agreements
- Racial Equality Proposal (1919)
- Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990)
- Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993)
- United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000)
- Yogyakarta Principles (2006)
International human rights law
- Fourth Geneva Convention (1949)
- European Convention on Human Rights (1952)
- Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951)
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination(1969)
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976)
- International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976)
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1981)
- Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990)
- Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000)
- Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007)
Other
- Human trafficking
- Slavery in international law
- Slave Trade Acts
- LGBT rights
- Declaration on Great Apes, an as-yet unsuccessful effort to extend some human rights to other great apes
- United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights
- Consent of the governed
- The Farewell Sermon (632 CE)
- Right to education
Notes
- Hansa Mehta (India) and Eleanor Roosevelt (United States); see Creation and draftingsection above.
- ^ United Nations headquarters in New York would not be complete until 1952, after which it became the permanent seat of the General Assembly.
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- Hashmi, Sohail H. (2002). Islamic political ethics: civil society, pluralism, and conflict. ISBN 978-0691113104.
- Holkebeer, Mieke (2004). "Out of the Crooked Timber of Humanity: Humanising Rights in South Africa". In ISBN 978-0864866189.
- Morsink, Johannes (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: origins, drafting, and intent. ISBN 978-0812217476.
- Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic political culture, democracy, and human rights: a comparative study. ISBN 978-0275961879.
- Williams, Paul (1981). The International bill of human rights. United Nations General Assembly. Entwhistle Books. ISBN 978-0934558075.
Further reading
- Feldman, Jean-Philippe (December 1999). "Hayek's Critique of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Journal des Économistes et des Études Humaines. 9 (4). .
- Nurser, John. "For All Peoples and All Nations. Christian Churches and Human Rights.". (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2005).
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at Columbia University (Centre for the Study of Human Rights), including article by article commentary, video interviews, discussion of meaning, drafting and history.
- Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and procedural history on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
External links
- Text of the UDHR
- Official translations of the UDHR
- Resource Guide on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the UN Library, Geneva.
- Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights – documents and meetings records – United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library
- Making the Universal Declaration At the 75th anniversary, 2023
- Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration
- Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- UDHR – Education
- UDHR in Unicode
- Revista Envío – A Declaration of Human Rights For the 21st Century
- Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and procedural history note on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
- The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights from the Law Library of Congress blog.
Audiovisual materials
- UDHR Audio/Video Project (recordings in 500+ languages by native speakers)
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights recorded in multiple languages at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at AmericanRhetoric.com
- Animated presentation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by Amnesty International on YouTube (in English duration 20 minutes and 23 seconds).
- Audio: Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration, 6 November 1948
- UN Department of Public Information introduction to the drafters of the Declaration
- Audiovisual material on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law