Great Northern War plague outbreak
During the
This plague was the last to affect the area around the Baltic, which had experienced several waves of the plague since the Black Death of the 14th century. However, for some areas, it was the most severe. People died within a few days of first showing symptoms. Especially on the eastern coast from Prussia to Estonia, the average death toll for wide areas was up to two thirds or three quarters of the population, and many farms and villages were left completely desolated. It is, however, hard to distinguish between deaths due to a genuine plague infection and deaths due to starvation and other diseases that spread along with the plague. While buboes are recorded among the symptoms, contemporary means of diagnosis were poorly developed, and death records are often unspecific, incomplete or lost. Some towns and areas were affected only for one year, while in other places the plague recurred annually throughout several subsequent years. In some areas, a disproportionally high death toll is recorded for children and women, which may be due to famine and the men being drafted.
As the
Background
Local outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague pandemics, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to one or another pandemic are still subject to discussion.[1] According to Joseph P. Byrne from Belmont University, the pandemics were:
- the
- the second plague pandemic from ~1345 to ~1840, spreading from Central Asia to the Mediterranean and Europe (starting with the Black Death), and probably also to China[2]
- the third plague pandemic from 1866 to the 1960s, spreading from China to various places around the world, notably the US-American west coast and India.[3]
However, the late medieval Black Death is sometimes seen not as the start of the second, but as the end of the first pandemic – in that case, the second pandemic's start would be 1361; the end dates of the second pandemic given in literature also vary, e.g. ~1890 instead of ~1840.[1]
The plague during the Great Northern War falls within the second pandemic, which by the late 17th century had its final recurrence in western Europe (e.g. the
In the late 17th century, the plague had retreated from Europe, making a last appearance in
Along with the plague, other diseases like
1702–1706: Southern Poland
By 1702, the armies of
During the following two years, plague broke out in Ruthenia, Podolia and Volhynia, with Lviv (Lemberg, Lwów) suffering around 10,000 plague deaths in 1704 and 1705 (40% of all inhabitants).[6] From 1705 to 1706, occurrences of plague in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were also recorded in Kołomyję (Kolomyja, Kolomea), Stanisławów (Stanislaviv, Stanislau), Stryj (Stryi), Sambor (Sambir), Przemyśl, and Jarosław.[16]
Spread in Poland–Lithuania after 1706
After the Swedish incursion, the
In 1707,
When news of the plague in Poland arrived in the Kingdom of Prussia, then still neutral in the war,[20] precautions were taken to prevent it spreading across the border. From 1704, health certificates were compulsory for travellers from Poland.[21] From 1707, a broad cordon sanitaire extended around the border of the former Duchy of Prussia, and those crossing into the Prussian exclave were quarantined.[22] Yet the border was long and wooded, and not all roads could be guarded; thus bridges were demolished, lesser roads blocked, and orders were given to hang people avoiding the guarded crossings and burn or fumigate all incoming goods.[21] There were, however, many exemptions for people with cross-border estates or occupations, who were allowed to pass freely.[23]
Spread in the area around the Baltic sea 1708–1713
Prussia
A few days after a
In January 1709, the plague reached Pillupönen (now
The next large town to the east of Danzig was
Located between Danzig and Königsberg, the town of
However,
Brandenburg
In November 1709, when the Prussian king
While the plague eventually spared Berlin,
Pomerania
In August 1709, the plague arrived in the small
The situation was aggravated in October 1709, when the Swedish army corps commanded by the Swedish Pomeranian
Contrary to Krassow's assurances, part of his corps was indeed infected with the plague, and the retreat from the infected Polish territories was carried out in disorder.[57] According to Zapnik (2006), "hordes of unrestrained soldateska, without adequate supplies and driven by fear of pursuit by their adversaries, behaved in a way more resembling their treatment of enemy territory when they had entered Swedish Pomerania."[57]
In addition to Damm, and Stettin, where 2,000 people died, the plague from 1709 to 1710 ravaged
Lithuania, Livonia, Estonia
In the years 1710 and 1711, 190,000 People were infected half of which died.[41] The main Lithuanian city, Vilnius suffered from the plague from 1709 to 1713.[6] Between 23,000 and 33,700 people died in the city in 1709 and 1710; that number continued to rise in the following three years, when many of the starving from the Lithuanian countryside, which was ravaged by hunger and other diseases, took refuge within its walls.[6]
In
The contemporaries believed that the plague in Riga continued because, when the Russian forces lifted the siege, the influx of fresh air swirled and further distributed the plague's
The primary city of Swedish Estonia,
Finland, Gotland and Central Sweden
From Livonia and Estonia, refugees brought the plague to Central Sweden and
From Stockholm, the plague in August
In September 1710, ships from
The island of Gotland was also affected by the plague from 1710 to 1712.[78] In its port town of Visby, the plague claimed more than 450 deaths, which was about one fifth of its population.[78]
Zealand
Already in 1708, the Danish Politi- och Kommercekollegium proposed shielding the Danish islands with a marine cordon sanitaire, with dedicated ports for inspection of incoming ships from the Baltic Sea and a quarantine station on
When in the course of the Russian conquest of Livonia refugees carried the plague to Finland and Central Sweden, and on the southern shore of the Baltic the plague had arrived in Stralsund, the worried council of Lübeck sent alerting letters to the Danish government, which after a discussion lasting from 21 October to 7/8 November resulted in a government decision to renew the quarantine requirement.[82] Saltholm was to be manned and equipped again, and the quarantine requirement was extended to ships from other infected ports.[82]
It is unclear whether at that time the plague had already arrived in Zealand's northeastern port of Helsingør (Elsinore), where the Sound Dues were collected from entering ships[83] and where a suspicious series of deaths was reported by the local health commission, allegedly starting with the death in the town on 1 October 1710 of a Dutch passenger arriving from Stockholm.[84] According to Persson (2001), it is "difficult to determine whether their cases have actually been a matter of plague, even if the progress in my eyes seems very suspicious;"[85] while Frandsen (2009) says that "I will risk my neck and postulate that the disease in Elsinore in the autumn of 1710 was not the plague but (as the barbers indicate) a form of typhus or spotted fever."[86]
There are however no doubts concerning the outbreak of the plague in late November 1710 in the small village of Lappen just north of Helsingør, populated by fishermen, ferrymen and nautical pilots.[85] The first death attributed to the plague was that of a fisherman's daughter on 14 November;[87] the peak of the plague in Lappen was reached already on 23 December, and while it faded out there in January 1711, it had already spread to or continued in neighboring Helsingør.[88] More than 1,800 people died in Helsingør in 1711, or roughly two thirds of its ~3,000 inhabitants.[89]
Despite the precautions, the plague ultimately spread from Helsingør to Copenhagen,[90] where from June to November 1711, between 12,000 and 23,000 people died out of a population of ~60,000.[91] Only on 19 September did the king decree that people from Zealand must not go to other Danish regions without a special passport; Zealand indeed remained the only Danish region with cases of the plague, except for Holstein (see below).[92]
Scania and Blekinge
In
In Blekinge, the plague arrived in August 1710 by means of army movements from and to Karlskrona, the central Swedish naval base.[73] By the beginning of 1712, about 15,000 soldiers and civilians had died not only in Karlskrona, but also in Karlshamn and other localities in Blekinge.[95]
Bremen, Bremen-Verden, Hamburg and Holstein
At the time of the
From Copenhagen,
In the spring and summer of 1712, the plague also broke out in Gröpelingen on Bremish territory.[97] The city council downplayed the plague cases in order not to impair trade, but set up a health commission and a pest house for quarantine measures.[97] Isolation of the infected did not prevent the plague from spreading into Bremen, but reduced the resulting deaths, which in 1712 were "only" 56 in Gröpelingen, which had a population of 360, and 12 in Bremen, which had a population of 28,000.[103] However, the plague returned to Bremen in 1713, killing another 180 people,[103]
Hamburg was hit much more severely. When the plague had reached Pinneberg and Rellingen just north of the Hamburg territory in the summer of 1712,[104] Hamburg restricted travel to the town, which the Danish king used as a pretext to encircle Hamburg with his forces[104] and confiscate Hamburg vessels on the River Elbe, demanding 500,000 thalers[105] (later reduced to 246,000 thalers)[106] to make up for this alleged discrimination against his subjects in Altona.[107] 12,000 Danish soldiers were moved before Hamburg's gates.[104] When the plague broke out in Hamburg less than three weeks later, it was carried there from the Danish troops by a prostitute from Hamburg's Gerkenshof lane, where out of 53 people 35 fell ill and 18 died.[108] The lane was blocked and isolated;[109] however, the quarantine could not prevent the disease from spreading through the densely built-up neighborhoods.[110] Among the dead was the plague doctor Majus, who belonged to those physicians who wore a beak-shaped mask containing a vinegar-soaked sponge to protect him against the miasma.[110] In December, the plague faded out.[109]
In January 1713, Stenbock's Swedish army marched through Hamburg and burned down the neighboring town of Altona,[111] which in contrast to Hamburg had refused to pay a contribution.[112] In Altona, the plague had killed 1,000 people, among them 300 Jews, while Hamburg remained free of the plague until July and did not take in refugees from Altona.[113] Just a week after the Swedish army had marched through Hamburg, the Russian army led by Peter the Great entered the town.[112] According to Frandsen (2009), the tsar "frolicked in Hamburg while his troops plundered the suburbs."[112]
When in August 1713 the plague broke out again,[112] it was much more severe than what Hamburg's inhabitants had experienced in 1712,[111] and the meanwhile returned Danish army established a cordon sanitaire around the city.[114] The cordon was supervised by Major von Ingversleben, who had dealt with the plague in Helsingør, and effectively prevented the plague from spreading to Holstein again.[112] When the plague finally faded out in Hamburg in March 1714, ~10,000 people had died of the disease.[112]
Death statistics by region
Town/Area | Plague years | Peak | Inhabitants | Deaths (absolute) | Deaths (relative) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Danzig (Gdansk) | March 1709 – December 1709 | August 1709 – September 1709 | ~50,000 | 24,533 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[27] | |
1709 | ~50,000 | 50–65% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Danzig incl. surrounding places | 32,599 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[27] | ||||
Vilnius | 1709–1713 | 1709–1710 | 23,000–33,700 (1709–10) | Frandsen (2009)[6] | ||
Königsberg | August 1709 – mid-1710 | October 1709 – December 1709 | 35,000–40,000 | >9,500 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[37] | |
1709 | ~35,000 | 20–25% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Stettin | fall 1709–1711 | 11,000–12,000 | 1,650–2,200 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[115] | ||
1710 | ~11,000 | 15–20% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Memel (Klaipeda) | September 1709 – 1710 | 1710 | 1,401 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[116] | ||
Tilsit | 1710 | June 1710 – October 1710 | 1,883 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[117] | ||
Stargard
|
1710–1711 | ~7,000 | 200–380 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[118] | ||
1710 | ~7,000 | 3–5% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Narva | June 1710 – late 1711 | ~3,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[119] | |||
Riga | May 1710 – late 1711 | 10,455 | 6,300–7,350 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[120] | ||
1710 | ~10,500 | 60–70% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Pernau | July 1710 – late 1710 | 3,000 | 1,100–1,200 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[121] | ||
1710 | 1,700 | 65–70% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Reval (Tallinn) and suburbs | August 1710 – December 1710 | 9,801 | 6,000–7,646 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[122] | ||
1710 | 10,000 | 55–70% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Reval and surrounding places | 20,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[122] | ||||
Stralsund | August 1710 – April 1711 | September 1710 – November 1710 | ~6,500–8,500 | 1,750–2,800 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[123] | |
1710 | ~7,000 | 25–40% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Stockholm | July/August 1710 – February 1711 | September 1710 – November 1710 | ~50,000–55,000 | 18,000–23,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[124] | |
1710 | ~55,000 | 33–40% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Visby | 1710–1711 | ~2,000–2,500 | 459–625 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[125] | ||
1711 | ~2,500 | 20–25% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Linköping | October 1710 – December 1711 | November 1710, July–August 1711 | ~1,500 | 386–500 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[126] | |
Linköping and surrounding places | 1,772 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[126] | ||||
Helsingør | November 1710 – summer 1711 | ~4,000 | 862 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[127] | ||
Jönköping | Dec 1710-late 1711 | ~2,500 | 872–1,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[128] | ||
Copenhagen | June 1711 – November 1711 | August – October 1711 | ~60,000 | 12,000–23,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[91] | |
1711 | ~60,000 | 20–35% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Ystad | June 1712 – late 1712 | ~1,600–2,300 | 750 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[129] | ||
Malmö | June 1712 – late 1712 | August 1712 | ~5,000 | 1,500–2,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[130] | |
1712 | ~55,000 | 30–40% | Kroll (2006)[38] | |||
Hamburg | 1712–1714 | August – October 1711 | ~70,000 | 9,000–10,000 | Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012)[131] | |
1713 | ~70,000 | 10–15% | Kroll (2006)[38] |
Habsburg Monarchy and Bavaria
From Poland, there had been three incursions of the plague into
The plague also spread to other territories of the Habsburg monarchy, though it was not involved in the Great Northern War. Territories severely affected in 1713 were Bohemia (where 37,000 died only in Prague),[134] and Austria,[135] and the plague also struck Moravia and Hungary.[132]
From the Habsburg territories, the plague crossed into the
See also
- List of epidemics
- Second plague pandemic
References
Citations
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 13.
- ^ a b Byrne (2012), p. xxi.
- ^ Byrne (2012), p. xxii.
- ^ Byrne (2012), p. 322; for the Circum-Baltic Frandsen (2009), title and Kroll (2006), p. 139.
- ^ Sticker (1908), pp. 208–209.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Frandsen (2009), p. 20.
- ^ Sticker (1908), pp. 209 ff.
- ^ Sticker (1908), pp. 210 ff.
- ^ a b c d Sticker (1908), p. 213.
- ^ Munzar (1995), p. 167.
- ^ O'Connor (2003), p. 19.
- ^ Lenke (1964), p. 3: "the winter of 1708/09 must have been the coldest hitherto known in Central Europe;" in detail pp. 27–35.
- ^ Frandsen (2006), p. 205.
- ^ Frost (2000), p. 273; Frandsen (2009), p. 20; details of the battle locations in Hatton (1968), pp. 183–184.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 20, 495; Sahm (1905), p. 35; Gottwald (1710), p. 1: "So wie mir berichtet worden/und ich von glaubwürdigen Leuten aus dem Lande selbst erfahren können [...]".
- ^ a b c Burchardt et al. (2009), p. 80.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 20; Burchardt et al. (2009), p. 82.
- ^ Burchardt et al. (2009), p. 82.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 25.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 24.
- ^ a b c d e f Frandsen (2009), p. 33.
- ^ Sahm (1905), p. 35; Frandsen (2009), p. 33.
- ^ Sahm (1905), pp. 35–38.
- ^ detailed in Sahm (1905), p. 38; cf. Frandsen (2009), p. 33.
- ^ a b Sahm (1905), p. 38.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 38
- ^ a b c Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Danzig. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 23.
- ^ a b c d e Frandsen (2009), p. 27.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 27, 31.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 26.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 26–27.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 28.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 34, Herden (2005), p. 66.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 35.
- ^ a b Herden (2005), p. 66.
- ^ a b Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Königsberg. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kroll (2006), p. 137.
- ^ a b c Frandsen (2009), p. 29.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 31.
- ^ a b c Kroll (2006), p. 138.
- ^ a b c d Kossert (2005), p. 96.
- ^ Kroll (2006), p. 138; Kossert (2005), p. 96.
- ^ Kossert (2005), p. 96: "Die Pest hatte leichte Beute, denn die körperliche Verfassung der bäuerlichen Bevölkerung war erbärmlich."
- ^ a b Kossert (2005), p. 107.
- ^ a b c Kossert (2005), p. 109.
- ^ Kossert (2005), pp. 104–110.
- ^ Jaeckel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ Jaeckel (1999), p. 15.
- ^ a b Jaeckel (1999), p. 16.
- ^ Jaeckel (1999), p. 18.
- ^ Schwartz (1901), pp. 53–79.
- ^ a b c Göse (2009), p. 165.
- ^ a b c d bei der Wieden (1999), p. 13.
- ^ a b c d e Thiede (1849), p. 782.
- ^ Thiede (1849), pp. 781–782.
- ^ a b c Zapnik (2008), p. 228.
- ^ Englund (2002), pp. 65–66.
- ^ Schöning (1837), pp. 46–107, esp. pp. 68ff.
- ^ Schöning (1837), pp. 68ff, esp. p. 91.
- ^ Schöning (1837), p. 96.
- ^ bei der Wieden (1999), p. 12.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Frandsen (2009), p. 41.
- ^ a b c d Frandsen (2009), p. 43.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 49.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 61.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 62.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 80; Engström (1994), p. 38.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 66–67.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 67–68.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 68.
- ^ a b c d Persson (2011), p. 21.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 68–69.
- ^ a b Svahn (retrieved 2012): Pesten i Jönköping. Archived 2010-08-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e Vuorinen (2007), p. 55.
- ^ a b c Engström (1994), p. 38.
- ^ a b Bohn (1989), p. 83.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 72.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 74-76.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 79.
- ^ a b c Frandsen (2009), p. 80.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 107.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 135–138, Persson (2001), pp. 167–168.
- ^ a b Persson (2001), p. 168: "Det är därför svårt att avgöra om det i deras fall verkligen har rört sig om pest, även om förloppet i mina ögon verkar mycket suspekt."
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 138
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 140, 151.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 151.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 92.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 82.
- ^ a b Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Kopenhagen. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Frandsen (2009), p. 475.
- ^ a b c Frandsen (2009), p. 469
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 470
- ^ Persson (2011), pp. 3, 21–22.
- ^ For Gottorp and Stenbock, cf. Frandsen (2009), p. 475.
- ^ a b c d e Frandsen (2009), p. 483.
- ^ Winkle (1983), p. 4.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 476, Winkle (1983), p. 4.
- ^ Ulbricht (2004), pp. 271–272.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 476
- ^ Frandsen (2009), pp. 476, 483; Winkle (1983), p. 4.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 484.
- ^ a b c Winkle (1983), p. 5.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Ulbricht (2004), p. 300; Winkle (1983), p. 5: "300,000" thalers.
- ^ Winkle (1983), p. 6; Frandsen (2009), p. 480: "a quarter of a million."
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Ulbricht (2004), p. 300; Winkle (1983), p. 5.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Winkle (1983), pp. 5–6.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Winkle (1983), p. 6.
- ^ a b Winkle (1983), p. 6.
- ^ a b Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Winkle (1983), p. 7.
- ^ a b c d e f Frandsen (2009), p. 480.
- ^ Winkle (1983), p. 7.
- ^ Frandsen (2009), p. 480; Winkle (1983), p. 8.
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Stettin. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Memel. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Tilsit. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Stargard. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Narva. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Riga. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Pernau. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Reval. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Stralsund. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Stockholm. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Visby. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Linköping. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Helsingør. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Jönköping. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Ystad. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Malmö. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kroll & Gabinsky (retrieved 2012): Hamburg. Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Lorinser (1837), p. 437
- ^ a b c d e Lorinser (1837), p. 438
- ^ Helleiner (1967), p. 60
- ^ Helleiner (1967), p. 60; Lorinser (1837), p. 437.
General references
- bei der Wieden, Brage (1999). Die Entwicklung der pommerschen Bevölkerung, 1701 bis 1918. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Pommern (vol. 33). Forschungen zur Pommerschen Geschichte (vol. 5). Cologne: Böhlau.
- Bohn, Robert (1989). Das Handelshaus Donner in Visby und der gotländische Aussenhandel im 18. Jahrhundert. Quellen und Darstellungen zur hansischen Geschichte. Vol. 33. Cologne: Böhlau.
- Burchardt, Jarosław; Meissner, Roman K; Burchardt, Dorota (2009). "Oddech śmierci – zaraza dżumy w Wielkopolsce i w Poznaniu w pierwszej połowie XVIII wieku" [Bubonic Plague – The Contagious Disease in the Great Poland and City of Poznań area in the first half of the XVIII c.] (PDF). Nowiny Lekarskie. 78 (1): 79–84.[permanent dead link]
- Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2012). Encyclopedia of the Black Death. Santa Barbara (CA): ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598842531.
- Englund, Peter (2002). The Battle That Shook Europe – Poltava and the Birth of the Russian Empire. London: Tauris. ISBN 9781860648472.
- Engström, Nils Göran (1994). "Pesten i Finland 1710" [The plague in Finland in 1710]. Hippokrates. Suomen Lääketieteen Historian Seuran vuosikirja. 11: 38–46. PMID 11640321.
- Frandsen, Karl-Erik (2006). "'Das könnte nützen.' Krieg, Pest, Hunger und Not in Helsingør im Jahr 1711". In Stefan Kroll; Kersten Krüger (eds.). Städtesystem und Urbanisierung im Ostseeraum in der Frühen Neuzeit: Urbane Lebensräume und Historische Informationssysteme, Beiträge des wissenschaftlichen Kolloquiums in Rostock vom 15. und 16. November 2004. Geschichte und Wissenschaft. Vol. 12. Berlin: LIT. pp. 205–225. ISBN 9783825887780.
- Frandsen, Karl-Erik (2009). The Last Plague in the Baltic Region. 1709–1713. Copenhagen. ISBN 9788763507707.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Frost, Robert I (2000). The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721. Harlow: Longman.
- Göse, Frank (2009). "Prenzlau im Zeitalter des 'Absolutismus' (1648–1806)". In Neitmann, Klaus; Schich, Winfried (eds.). Geschichte der Stadt Prenzlau. Horb am Neckar: Geiger. pp. 140–184.
- Gottwald, Johann Christoph (1710). Memoriale Loimicum, Oder Kurtze Verzeichnüß, Dessen, Was in der Königl. Stadt Dantzig, bey der daselbst Anno 1709. hefftig graßirenden Seuche der Pestilentz, sich zugetragen, Nach einer Dreyfachen Nachricht, aus eigener Erfahrung auffgesetzet und beschrieben. Danzig. Archived from the original on 2017-10-20. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
- Hatton, Ragnhild Marie (1968). Charles XII. of Sweden. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 9780297748267.
- Helleiner, Karl F. (1967). "The population of Europe from the Black Death to the Eve of the Vital Revolution". In Rich, E. E.; Wilson, C. H. (eds.). The Economy of Expanding Europe in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP. ISBN 9780521045070.
- Herden, Ralf Bernd (2005). Roter Hahn und Rotes Kreuz. Diskussionspapiere der Hochschule für öffentliche Verwaltung in Kehl. Kehl: BoD.
- Jaeckel, Gerhard (1999). Die Charité. Die Geschichte eines Weltzentrums der Medizin von 1710 bis zur Gegenwart. Berlin: Ullstein.
- Kossert, Andreas (2005). "Die Große Pest 1709–1711". Ostpreußen. Geschichte und Mythos. Berlin: Siedler. pp. 96 [101]–103 [108]. ISBN 9783641032326.
- Kossert, Andreas (2005). "Preußische Toleranz, Fremde und 'Repeuplirung'". Ostpreußen. Geschichte und Mythos. Berlin: Siedler. pp. 104 [109]–110 [115]. ISBN 9783641032326.
- Kroll, Stefan (2006). "Die "Pest" im Ostseeraum zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts: Stand und Perspektiven der Forschung". In Stefan Kroll; Kersten Krüger (eds.). Städtesystem und Urbanisierung im Ostseeraum in der Frühen Neuzeit: Urbane Lebensräume und Historische Informationssysteme, Beiträge des wissenschaftlichen Kolloquiums in Rostock vom 15. und 16. November 2004. Geschichte und Wissenschaft. Vol. 12. Berlin: LIT. pp. 124–148. ISBN 9783825887780.
- Kroll, Stefan; Grabinsky, Anne. "Städtesystem und Urbanisierung im Ostseeraum in der Neuzeit – Historisches Informationssystem und Analyse von Demografie, Wirtschaft und Baukultur im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert. B: Komplexe Historische Informationssysteme. B2: Der letzte Ausbruch der Pest im Ostseeraum zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts. Chronologie des Seuchenzugs und Bestandsaufnahme überlieferter Sterbeziffern. Karte". University of Rostock. Archived from the original on 2007-07-03. Retrieved 2012-08-14.
Suppages: Danzig Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Königsberg Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Stettin Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Memel Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Tilsit Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Narva Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Stargard Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Riga Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Pernau Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Reval Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Stralsund Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Stockholm Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Visby Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Linköping Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Jönköping Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Ystad Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Malmö Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Helsingør Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Kopenhagen Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine; Hamburg Archived 2007-07-03 at the Wayback Machine - Persson, Bodil E. B. (2001). Pestens gåta. Farsoter i det tidiga 1700-talets Skåne. Studia historica Lundensia. Vol. 5. Lund: Historiska institutionen vid Lunds universitet.
- Lenke, Walter (1964). Untersuchung der ältesten Temperaturmessungen mit Hilfe des strengen Winters 1708–1709 (PDF). Berichte des Deutschen Wetterdienstes. Vol. 13, Nr. 92. Offenbach am Main.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Lorinser, Carl Ignaz (1837). "Die letzte Pest in Schlesien 1708–1713". Die Pest des Orients. Wie sie entsteht und verhütet wird. Berlin: Enslin. p. 437.
- Munzar, Jan (1995). "The "cold-wet" famines of the years 1695–1697 in Finland and manifestations of the Little Ice Age in Central Europe". In Heikinheimo, Pirkko (ed.). International conference on past, present and future climate. Helsinki: Edita. pp. 167–170.
- O’Connor, Kevin (2003). The History of the Baltic States. The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations. Westport, CT/London: Greenwood Press.
- Persson, Thomas (2011). "Pesten i Blekinge 1710–1711" (PDF). Blekinge museum.[permanent dead link]
- Sahm, Wilhelm (1905). Geschichte der Pest in Ostpreußen. Leipzig.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Schöning, Kurt von (1837). "Aktenmäßige Darstellung, wie ein Theil von Hinterpommern und die Provinz Neumark Brandenburg, als Gebiete eines neutralen Fürsten, während des Nordischen Krieges zweimal den unerlaubten Durchmarsch feindlicher Truppen erfuhren". Baltische Studien. 4 (1): 46–106.
- Schwartz, Paul (1901). "Die letzte Pest in der Neumark 1710". Schriften des Vereins für die Geschichte der Neumark. XI. Landsberg an der Warthe: 53–79.
- Sticker, Georg (1908). Die Pest. Abhandlungen aus der Seuchengeschichte und Seuchenlehre. Vol. 1. Gießen: A. Töpelmann (vormals J. Ricker).
- Svahn, Joakim. "Pesten i Jönköping". Jönköpings läns museum. Archived from the original on 2010-08-21. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
- Thiede, Friedrich (1849). Chronik der Stadt Stettin. Bearbeitet nach Urkunden und den bewährten historischen Nachrichten. Stettin: Müller.
- Ulbricht, Otto (2004). Die leidige Seuche. Pest-Fälle in der Frühen Neuzeit. Cologne/Weimar: Böhlau.
- Vourinen, Heikki S. (2007). "History of plague epidemics in Finland" [Histoire des epidemies de peste en Finlande]. In Signoli, Michel; et al. (eds.). Peste: entre épidemies et sociétés. Firenze: Firenze University Press. pp. 53–56. ISBN 9788884534903.
- Winkle, Stefan (1983). "Die Pest in Hamburg. Epidemiologische und ätiologische Überlegungen während und nach der letzten Pestepidemie im Hamburger Raum 1712/13" (PDF). Hamburger Ärzteblatt. 2–3/1983 (Sonderdruck of part I&II first published in Jg. 37 pp. 51–57 and 82–87): 1–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-20.
- Zapnik, Jörg (2006). "Pest in Stralsund während des Großen Nordischen Krieges 1710 bis 1711 und das Historische Informationssystem "PestStralsund1710"". In Stefan Kroll; Kersten Krüger (eds.). Städtesystem und Urbanisierung im Ostseeraum in der Frühen Neuzeit: Urbane Lebensräume und Historische Informationssysteme, Beiträge des wissenschaftlichen Kolloquiums in Rostock vom 15. und 16. November 2004. Geschichte und Wissenschaft. Vol. 12. Berlin: LIT. pp. 226–255. ISBN 9783825887780.
- Zapnik, Jörg (2007). Pest und Krieg im Ostseeraum. Der "Schwarze Tod" in Stralsund während des Großen Nordischen Krieges (1700–1721). Greifswalder Historische Studien. Vol. 7. Hamburg.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)