Dualism in cosmology
Dualism in cosmology or dualistic cosmology is the moral or spiritual belief that two fundamental concepts exist, which often oppose each other. It is an umbrella term that covers a diversity of views from various religions, including both traditional religions and scriptural religions.
Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement of, or conflict between, the benevolent and the malevolent. It simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and independent of how these may be represented. Moral opposites might, for example, exist in a worldview that has one god, more than one god, or none. By contrast,
Many
Moral dualism
Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of monist or monotheistic principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and—unlike ditheism/bitheism—independent of how these may be represented.
For example, Mazdaism (Mazdean Zoroastrianism) is both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist by definition) since in that philosophy God—the Creator—is purely good, and the antithesis—which is also uncreated–is an absolute one. Mandaeism is monotheistic and Gnostic and in its cosmology, the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) that is good, is contrasted with the World of Darkness or underworld (alma d-hšuka) that is evil.[6][7] Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism) and Manichaeism are representative of dualistic and monist philosophies since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, Catharism, and so on. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in Hermeticism, where Nous "thought"—that is described to have created man—brings forth both good and evil, dependent on interpretation, whether it receives prompting from the God or from the Demon. Duality with pluralism is considered a logical fallacy.
History
Moral dualism began as a theological belief. Dualism was first seen implicitly in Egyptian religious beliefs by the contrast of the gods Set (disorder, death) and Osiris (order, life).[8] The first explicit conception of dualism came from the Ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism around the mid-fifth century BC. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that believes that Ahura Mazda is the eternal creator of all good things. Any violations of Ahura Mazda's order arise from druj, which is everything uncreated. From this comes a significant choice for humans to make. Either they fully participate in human life for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give druj power. Personal dualism is even more distinct in the beliefs of later religions.
The religious dualism of Christianity between good and evil is not a perfect dualism as God (good) will inevitably destroy Satan (evil). Early Christian dualism is largely based on Platonic Dualism (See: Neoplatonism and Christianity). There is also a personal dualism in Christianity with a soul-body distinction based on the idea of an immaterial Christian soul.[9]
Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism
When used with regards to multiple gods, dualism may refer to duotheism, bitheism, or ditheism. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not necessarily imply theism (theos = god) at all.
Both bitheism and ditheism imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary or antonymous properties; however, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, bright and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf.
In a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the two deities are not in conflict or opposition, one could be male and the other female (cf. duotheism[
Radical and mitigated dualism
- Radical Dualism – or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces.Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant. The 'Hymn of the Pearl' included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped inside it in a state of drunken distraction.
- Mitigated Dualism – is where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.[10]
However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology of Persephone). Marcionism, an early Christian sect, held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of different religions.[11]
Theistic dualism
In theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between God and creation or God and the universe. This form of dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of Christianity and Hinduism.[12][1]
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism or "Mazdayasna" is one of the world's oldest continuously-practiced religions, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster.[13][14] It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology which predicts the ultimate conquest of evil by good.[15] Zoroastrianism exalts an uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom known as Ahura Mazda (lit. 'Wise Lord') as its supreme being.[16]
Manichaeism
In Christianity
The dualism between God and Creation has existed as a central belief in multiple historical sects and traditions of Christianity, including
In sects like the Cathars and the Paulicians, this is a dualism between the material world, created by an evil god, and a moral god. Historians divide Christian dualism into absolute dualism, which held that the good and evil gods were equally powerful, and mitigated dualism, which held that material evil was subordinate to the spiritual good.[23] The belief, by Christian theologians who adhere to a libertarian or compatibilist view of free will, that free will separates humankind from God has also been characterized as a form of dualism.[1] The theologian Leroy Stephens Rouner compares the dualism of Christianity with the dualism that exists in Zoroastrianism and the Samkhya tradition of Hinduism. The theological use of the word dualism dates back to 1700, in a book that describes the dualism between good and evil.[1]
The tolerance of dualism ranges widely among the different Christian traditions. As a monotheistic religion, the conflict between dualism and monism has existed in Christianity since its inception.[24] The 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia describes that, in the Catholic Church, "the dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by side with God was of course rejected" by the thirteenth century, but mind–body dualism was not.[25] The problem of evil is difficult to reconcile with absolute monism, and has prompted some Christian sects to veer towards dualism. Gnostic forms of Christianity were more dualistic, and some Gnostic traditions posited that the Devil was separate from God as an independent deity.[24] The Christian dualists of the Byzantine Empire, the Paulicians, were seen as Manichean heretics by Byzantine theologians. This tradition of Christian dualism, founded by Constantine-Silvanus, argued that the universe was created through evil and separate from a moral God.[26]
Cathars
The Cathars, a Christian sect in southern France, believed that there was a dualism between two gods, one representing good and the other representing evil. Whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is a matter of dispute, as the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser creator god), though unlike the second century Gnostics, they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force. In any case, the Roman Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by Pope Innocent III in 1208 to remove the Cathars from Languedoc in France, where they were known as Albigensians. The Inquisition, which began in 1233 under Pope Gregory IX, also targeted the Cathars.[27]
In Hinduism
The
Ontological dualism
Alternatively, dualism can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching
In Chinese philosophy
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2017) |
The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of yin and yang is a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is an important feature of Taoism, both as a philosophy and as a religion, although the concept developed much earlier. Some argue that yin and yang were originally an earth and sky god, respectively.[31]
Some of the common associations with yang and yin, respectively, are: male and female, light and dark, active and passive, motion and stillness. Some scholars believe that the two ideas may have originally referred to two opposite sides of a mountain, facing towards and away from the sun.[31] The yin and yang symbol actually has very little to do with Western dualism; instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. In the yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. In Taoism, this symbolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as different aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the independent principles of yin and yang are actually dependent on one another for each other's distinguishable existence.
The complementary dualistic concept seen in yin and yang represent the reciprocal interaction throughout nature, related to a
In other religions
Samoyed peoples
In a
Comparative studies of Kets and neighboring peoples
Among others, also dualistic myths were investigated in researches which tried to compare the mythologies of Siberian peoples and settle the problem of their origins.
Chukchi
A Chukchi myth and its variations report the creation of the world; in some variations, it is achieved by the collaboration of several beings (birds, collaborating in a coequal way; or the creator and the raven, collaborating in a coequal way; or the creator alone, using the birds only as assistants).[44]
Fuegians
All three
See also
- Didache – The Two Ways
- Duality
- Mind-body dualism
- Cosmotheism
- Evil twin
- Gnosticism
- Pantheism
- Nondualism
- Table of Opposites
- Trinity
- Yanantin (complementary dualism in Native South American culture)
Footnotes
- ^ ISBN 978-0-664-22748-7.
- ^ Zolotarjov 1980, p. 42.
- ^ Zolotarjov 1980, p. 43.
- ^ Gusinde 1966, pp. 71, 181.
- ^ Zolotarjov 1980, p. 54.
- OCLC 65198443.
- ISBN 9781317233794.
- Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Knight, Kevin. "Soul". Catholic Encyclopedia (Online ed.). Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ a b Popov 2010.
- ^ Riparelli 2008.
- ISBN 978-0199738724.
- ^ "Zarathustra – Iranian prophet". Retrieved 9 June 2017.
- ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2021-03-29.
- ^ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2005). "Introduction to Zoroastrianism" (PDF). Iranian Studies at Harvard University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-24. Retrieved 2021-12-15.
- ^ "AHURA MAZDĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-3611-0.
- ^ Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ "Manichaeism". New Advent Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
- ^ "Cosmogony and Cosmology iii. In Manicheism". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
[I]n Manicheism the world was a prison for demons...
- ^ Widengren, Geo Mesopotamian elements in Manichaeism (King and Saviour II): Studies in Manichaean, Mandaean, and Syrian-gnostic religion, Lundequistska bokhandeln, 1946.
- ^ Pagels, Elaine (1989). The Gnostic Gospels. New York: Random House.
- ISBN 978-0-8122-0680-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-00684-0.
- ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company. 1912. p. 170.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-4765-7.
- ISBN 978-0-06-251770-8.
- ISBN 0-595-39312-8 – via Google Books.
- ]
- ISBN 978-0-520-06460-7.
- ^ a b Roberts, Jeremy. "Yin and Yang". Ancient and Medieval History. Facts on File. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
- ^ Vértes 1990, pp. 104, 105.
- ^ Zolotarjov 1980, p. 47–48.
- ^ Ivanov & Toporov 1973.
- ^ Ivanov (1984a), p. 390, in editorial afterword by Hoppál
- ^ Ivanov 1984b, pp. 225, 227, 229.
- ^ Ivanov 1984b, pp. 229, 230.
- ^ Ivanov 1984b, pp. 229–231.
- ^ a b Zolotarjov 1980, p. 39.
- ^ a b Zolotarjov 1980, p. 48.
- ^ Zolotarjov 1980, p. 37.
- ^ Ivanov 1984b, p. 229.
- ^ a b Zolotarjov 1980, p. 56.
- ^ Anisimov 1966; Anisimov 1971; Zolotarjov 1980, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Gusinde 1966, p. 71.
- ^ Gusinde 1966, p. 181.
Bibliography
- Anisimov, F. А. (1966). Dukhovnaya zhizn' pervobytnogo obshchestva Духовная жизнь первобытново общества [The spiritual life of the primitive commune] (in Russian). Moscow: Leningrad: Nauka.
- Anisimov, F. А. (1971). Istoricheskiye osobennosti pervobytnogo myshleniya Исторические особенности первобытново мышления [Historical futures of the primitive mind] (in Russian). Moscow: Leningrad: Nauka.
- Gusinde, Martin (1966). Nordwind—Südwind. Mythen und Märchen der Feuerlandindianer [North wind—south wind. Myths and tales of Fuegians] (in German). Kassel: E. Röth.
- Ivanov, Vyacheslav; Toporov, Vladimir (1973). "Towards the Description of Ket Semiotic Systems". Semiotica. 9 (4). The Hague; Prague; New York: Mouton: 318–346.
- Ivanov, Vjacseszlav (1984a). "Nyelvek és mitológiák" [Languages and mythologies]. Nyelv, mítosz, kultúra [Language, myth, culture] (in Hungarian). Collected, appendix, editorial afterword by Hoppál, Mihály. Budapest: Gondolat. ISBN 963-281-186-0.
- Ivanov, Vjacseszlav (1984b). "Obi-ugor és ket folklórkapcsolatok" [Obi-Ugric and Ket folklore contacts]. Nyelv, mítosz, kultúra [Language, myth, culture] (in Hungarian). Collected, appendix, editorial afterword by Hoppál, Mihály. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 215–233. ISBN 963-281-186-0.
- Lavazza, Andrea; Robinson, Howard, eds. (2014). Contemporary Dualism: A Defense. Routledge Studies in Contemporary Philosophy. New York: ISBN 978-0-415-81882-7.
- Popov, Igor N. (2010). Metafizika absolyutnogo dualizma: oratoriya preodoleniya Метафизика абсолютного дуализма: оратория преодоления [Metaphysics of Absolute Dualism: an oratorio of the overcoming] (in Russian). Barnaul: Azbuka. ISBN 978-5-93957-396-2.
- Riparelli, Enrico (2008). Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari [The face of the dualistic Christ. From Marcion to the Cathars] (in Italian). Bern; Berlin; Bruxelles; Frankfurt am Main; New York; Oxford; Wien: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-03911-490-0.
- Vértes, Edit (1990). Szibériai nyelvrokonaink hitvilága [Belief systems of our language relatives in Siberia] (in Hungarian). Budapest: Tankönyvkiadó. ISBN 963-18-2603-1.
- Zolotarjov, A. M. (1980). "Társadalomszervezet és dualisztikus teremtésmítoszok Szibériában" [Social structure and dualistic creation myths in Siberia]. In Hoppál, Mihály (ed.). A Tejút fiai. Tanulmányok a finnugor népek hitvilágáról [The sons of Milky Way. Studies on the belief systems of Finno-Ugric peoples] (in Hungarian). Budapest: Európa Könyvkiadó. pp. 29–58. ISBN 963-07-2187-2.
External links
- Media related to Dualism in cosmology at Wikimedia Commons
- "Duality" entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology
- "Dualism in Philosophy and Religion" in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas