Theme (Byzantine district)
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The themes or thémata (
History
Background
During the late 6th and early 7th centuries, the
Justinian also endowed governors (eparchs, stratelates) of the eastern provinces plagued by brigandage and foreign invasions with military and administrative powers, formally abolishing the empire's
In order to respond to this unprecedented crisis, the Empire was drastically reorganized. As established by
Origins
The origin and early nature of the themes has been heavily disputed amongst scholars. The very name théma is of uncertain etymology, but most scholars follow
Tied to the question of chronology is also the issue of a corresponding social and military transformation. The traditional view, championed by Ostrogorsky, holds that the establishment of the themes also meant the creation of a new type of army. In his view, instead of the old force, heavily reliant on foreign mercenaries, the new Byzantine army was based on native farmer-soldiers living on state-leased military estates (compare the organization of the Sasanian aswārān).[7][13] More recent scholars however have posited that the formation of the themes did not constitute a radical break with the past, but rather a logical extension of pre-existing, 6th-century trends, and that its direct social impact was minimal.[7]
First themes: 640s–770s
What is clear is that at some point in the mid-7th century, probably in the late 630s and 640s, the Empire's field armies were withdrawn to Anatolia, the last major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, and assigned to the districts that became known as the themes. Territorially, each of the new themes encompassed several of the older provinces, and with a few exceptions, seems to have followed the old provincial boundaries.
In addition, the great naval division of the Carabisians or
The part of the region of
Thus, by the turning of the century, the themes had become the dominant feature of imperial administration. Their large size and power however made their generals prone to revolt, as had been evidenced in the turbulent period 695–715, and would again during the great revolt of Artabasdos in 741–742.[29] The suppression of Artabasdos' revolt heralded the first significant changes in the Anatolian themes: the over-mighty Opsikion was broken up with the creation of two new themes, the Bucellarian Theme and the Optimates, while the role of imperial guard was assumed by a new type of professional force, the imperial tagmata.[30]
Height of the theme system, 780s–950s
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Despite the prominence of the themes, it was some time before they became the basic unit of the imperial administrative system. Although they had become associated with specific regions by the early 8th century, it took until the end of the 8th century for the civil fiscal administration to begin being organized around them, instead of following the old provincial system.[31] This process, resulting in unified control over both military and civil affairs of each theme by its strategos, was complete by the mid-9th century,[32] and is the "classical" thematic model mentioned in such works as the Klētorologion and the De Administrando Imperio.
At the same time, the need to protect the Anatolian heartland of Byzantium from the Arab raids led to the creation, in the later 8th and early 9th centuries, of a series of small frontier districts, the kleisourai or kleisourarchiai ("defiles, enclosures"). The term was previously used to signify strategically important, fortified mountain passages, and was now expanded to entire districts which formed separate commands under a kleisourarchēs, tasked with guerrilla warfare and locally countering small to mid-scale incursions and raids. Gradually, most of these were elevated to full themes.[33][34]
Decline of the system, 960s–1070s
With the beginning of the Byzantine offensives in the East and the Balkans in the 10th century, especially under the warrior-emperors
At this time, a new class of themes, the so-called "minor" (μικρὰ θέματα) or "Armenian" themes (ἀρμενικὰ θέματα) appear, which Byzantine sources clearly differentiate from the traditional "great" or "Roman" themes (ῥωμαϊκά θέματα). Most consisted merely of a fortress and its surrounding territory, with a junior stratēgos (called zirwar by the Arabs and zoravar by the Armenians) as a commander and about 1,000 men, chiefly infantry, as their garrison. As their name reveals, they were mostly populated by Armenians, either indigenous or settled there by the Byzantine authorities. One of their peculiarities was the extremely large number of officers (the theme of Charpezikion alone counted 22 senior and 47 junior tourmarchai).[32][36][37]
While well suited for defence, the "Armenian" themes were incapable of responding to major invasions or undertake sustained offensive campaigns on their own. Thus, from the 960s, more and more professional regiments, both from the old tagmata and newly raised formations, were stationed along the border. To command them as well as coordinate the forces of the small frontier themes, a number of large regional commands ("ducates" or "catepanates"), under a
The series of soldier-emperors culminating in Basil II led to a situation where by 1025 Byzantium was more powerful than any of its enemies. At the same time, the mobile, professional forces of the tagmata gained in importance over the old thematic armies (and fleets) of the interior, which soon began to be neglected. Indeed, from the early 11th century military service was increasingly commuted to cash payments. While the frontier ducates were able to meet most local threats, the dissolution of the old theme-based defensive system deprived the Byzantine defensive system of any strategic depth. Coupled with increasing reliance on foreign mercenaries and the forces of allied and vassal states, as well as the revolts and civil wars resulting from the widening rift between the civilian bureaucracy in Constantinople and the land-holding military elites (the dynatoi), by the time of the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantine army was already undergoing a severe crisis and collapsed completely in the battle's aftermath.[40]
Change and decline: 11th–12th centuries
The
The Komnenian restoration required a new system to manage the severely weakened themes of Anatolia due to the catastrophe of Manzikert. The themes followed the Kommenian era trend of greater imperial centralization with the governors being members of the imperial family, owing their allegiance solely to the emperor. This eroded the old independent character of the once large Anatolian themes. The new military governors (called Doux or Katepanos indiscriminately) assumed strongly centralized roles on the emperor's behalf so that the influx of landed pronoia foreigners in military service could be regulated and counteracted in cases of uprising. The governorships were specifically reserved for relatives of the Komnenian family alone and though efficient emergency measures, it successfully turned the empire into a dependency on foreign mercenaries, yielding the mass of native Greeks and making it unprecedentedly subordinate to the will of its European counterparts.[42]
Each Theme was overseen by a Katepanos or Doux, whose authorities was both military and civil, subdivided into
The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era never managed to field the manpower of the themes in their heyday, and the new system proved more expensive to maintain in the long run. It also relied on a succession of strong soldier-emperors to be effective. With the death of Manuel I Komnenos in 1180, a new period of decline set in.
Late Byzantine themata
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The neglect under the
The deplorable state of the empire at this point did not allow any further administrative innovations, the Komnenian structural legacy still fully present even when its countermeasure no longer served its purpose.
The still irrelevant micro provinces under imperial control were organized directly into katepanakias or kephalatikion each also ruled by a Katepan or Kephale with military and civic powers centered around forts and major passes, relegating all minor tasks to deputies.[45]
Organization
The term thema was ambiguous, referring both to a form of military tenure and to an administrative division. A theme was an arrangement of plots of land given for farming to the soldiers "stratiotai" coexisting with different villages and towns, "Komai", "Chora" which were taxed for rapid and continuous revenue for the state with an easy and simple handling for a more direct control of the empire by the emperor alone or his viceroys, which ultimately, was a simplified Hellenistic and fiscal administrative principle adapted for war times.[46] The soldiers were still technically a military unit, under the command of a strategos, they did not own the land they worked as it was still controlled by the state. Therefore, for its use the soldiers' pay was reduced. By accepting this proposition, the participants agreed that their descendants would also serve in the military and work in a theme, thus simultaneously reducing the need for unpopular conscription as well as cheaply maintaining the military. It also allowed for the settling of conquered lands, as there was always a substantial addition made to public lands "proasteion" during a conquest.
The commander of a theme, however, did not only command his soldiers. He united the civil and military jurisdictions in the territorial area in question. Thus the division set up by Diocletian between civil governors (praesides etc.) and military commanders (duces etc.) was abolished, and the Empire returned to a system much more similar to that of the Republic or the Principate and directly linkeable to the system of Eparchies and Strategiai set up in the Hellenistic Seleucid and Mithridatric Kingdoms respectively, which were military in origin and organization as well, where provincial governors had also commanded the armies in their area.
The following table illustrates the thematic structure as found in the Thracesian Theme, c. 902-936:
Structure of the Thema Thrakēsiōn | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Number of personnel | Number of subordinate units | Officer in command | |||||||
Thema | 9,600 | 4 Tourmai | Strategos | |||||||
Tourma
|
2,400 | 6 Droungoi | Tourmarches
| |||||||
Droungos | 400 | 2 Banda | Droungarios | |||||||
Bandon | 200 | 2 Kentarchiai | Komes | |||||||
Kentarchia | 100 | 10 Kontoubernia | Kentarches /Hekatontarches
| |||||||
50 | 5 Kontoubernia | Pentekontarches | ||||||||
Kontoubernion | 10 | 1 "Vanguard" + 1 "Rear Guard" | Dekarchos | |||||||
"Vanguard" | 5 | n/a | Pentarches | |||||||
"Rear Guard" | 4 | n/a | Tetrarches |
List of the themes between c. 660 and 930
This list includes the large "traditional" themes established in the period from the inception of the theme system in c. 660 to the beginning of the great conquests in c. 930 and the creation of the new, smaller themes.[47]
Theme (name in Greek) | Date | Established from | Later divisions | Capital | Original territory | Other cities |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aegean Sea† (thema Aigaiou Pelàgous, Θέμα τοῦ Αἰγαίου Πελάγους) |
by 842/843 | Cibyrrhaeots, raised from independent droungariate | possibly Methymna
|
|||
Anatolics (thema Anatolikōn, Θέμα των Ἀνατολικῶν) |
by 669/670 | Former Field Army of the East/Syria | Cappadocia§ (830) | Amorium | Phrygia, Pisidia, Isauria | |
Armeniacs (thema Armeniakōn, Armeniakoi, Θέμα τῶν Ἀρμενιακῶν) |
by 667/668 | Former Field Army of Armenia | Chaldia (by 842), Charsianon§ (863), Koloneia (863), Paphlagonia (by 826) | Amasea | Armenia Minor, northern Cappadocia
|
Amisus, Euchaita, Comana Pontica
|
Bucellarians (thema Boukellarion, Boukellàrioi, Θέμα τῶν Βουκελλαρίων) |
by 767/768 | Opsikion | Paphlagonia (in part), Cappadocia (in part), Charsianon (in part) | Ancyra | Galatia, Paphlagonia | Gordion
|
Cappadocia§ (thema Kappadokias, Θέμα Καππαδοκίας) |
by 830 | Armeniacs, part of the Bucellarians | Koron Fortress, later Tyana | SW Cappadocia | ||
Cephallenia† (thema Kephallēnias, Θέμα Κεφαλληνίας) |
by 809 | Langobardia (by 910), ?Nicopolis (by 899) | Cephallenia
|
Ionian Islands, Apulia | Corfu, Zakynthos, Leucate | |
Chaldia (thema Chaldias, Θέμα Χαλδίας) |
c. 840 | Armeniacs (originally a tourma )
|
Duchy of Chaldia | Trebizond | Pontic coast | Rhizus, Cerasous, Polemonion, Paiperta |
Charsianon§ (thema Charsianoù, Θέμα Χαρσιανοῦ) |
863–873 | Armeniacs (originally a tourma ), part of the Bucellarians
|
Caesarea
|
NW Cappadocia | Charsianon | |
Cherson/Klimata (thema Chersōnos/Klimata, Θέμα Χερσῶνος/τὰ Κλίματα) |
833 | ruled by the Khazars in the 8th century, Byz. rule rest. by Theophilos | Cherson
|
South Crimea | ||
Cibyrrhaeots† (thema Kibyrrhaiotōn, Kibyrrhaiotai, Θέμα τῶν Κυβυρραιωτῶν) |
by 697/698 or c. 720 | Created from the Karabisianoi fleet | Aegean Sea, Samos, Seleucia | Attaleia
|
Pamphylia, Lycia, Dodecanese, Aegean Islands, Ionian coast | Cnidus, Kos
|
Crete †(thema Krētēs, Θέμα Κρήτης) |
by 767 (?), again in 961 | Arab emirate from c. 828 until Byz. reconquest in 961 | Chandax
|
Crete | Gortys
| |
Dalmatia (thema Dalmatias, Θέμα Δαλματίας) |
by 899 | New territory | Idassa/Iadera | Coast of Dalmatia | Scardona
| |
Dyrrhachium (thema Dyrrhachiou, Θέμα Δυρραχίου) |
by 842 | New territory | Dyrrhachium
|
Illyria, Albanian coast | Apollonia, Lissos
| |
Hellas (thema Hellàdos, Helladikoi, Θέμα τῆς Ἑλλάδος/Ἑλλαδικῶν) |
c. 690 | Karabisianoi | Cephallenia (by 809), Peloponnese (by 811) | Corinth, later Thebes (after 809) | Initially E. Peloponnese and Attica, after 809 eastern Central Greece and Thessaly | (after 809) Stagoi
|
Koloneia§ (thema Kolōneias, Θέμα Κολωνείας) |
by 863, probably c. 842 | Armeniacs, kleisoura by early 9th century | Duchy of Chaldia | Koloneia
|
North Armenia Minor
|
Neocaesarea
|
Longobardia (thema Longobardias, Θέμα Λογγοβαρδίας) |
by 892 | Cephallenia (originally a tourma )
|
Barion | Apulia, Lucania | Tarantas, Brindesion, Hydrus, Callipolis | |
Lykandos (thema Lykàndou, Θέμα Λυκάνδου) |
by 916 | New territory | Lykandos Fortress | SE Cappadocia | Cocyssos, Comana
| |
Macedonia (thema Makedonias, Θέμα Μακεδονίας) |
by 802 | Thrace | Strymon | Adrianopolis
|
Western Thrace | Maronia
|
Mesopotamia (thema Mesopotamias, Θέμα Μεσοποταμίας) |
by 899-911 | New territory | Duchy of Mesopotamia | Kamacha[citation needed ]
|
Upper Euphratesia
|
|
Nicopolis (thema Nikopoleōs, Θέμα Νικοπόλεως) |
by 899 | probably raised from tourma of the Peloponnese | Naupaktos
|
Epirus, Aetolia, Acarnania | ||
Opsikion (Thema of Opsikion, Θέμα τοῦ Ὀψικίου) |
by 680 | Imperial Praesental Armies | Bucellarians (by 768), Optimates (by 775) | Nicaea | Mysia, Northern Phrygia, Western Bithynia | Kotyaion, Midaeum
|
Optimates (thema Optimàtōn, Optimatoi, Θέμα τῶν Ὀπτιμάτων) |
by 775 | Opsicians | Nicomedia | Bithynia opposite Constantinople | Chalcedon, Chrysopolis | |
Paphlagonia (thema Paphlagonias, Θέμα Παφλαγονίας) |
by 826, prob. c. 820 | Armeniacs, Bucellarians (in part) | Gangra
|
Paphlagonia | Ionopolis, Kastamonè, Pompeiopolis
| |
Peloponnese (thema Peloponnēsou, Θέμα Πελοποννήσου) |
by 811 | Hellas in part, in part new territory | ?Nicopolis (by 899) | Corinth | Peloponnese | |
Phasiane (Derzene) (thema Phasianēs/Derzēnēs, Θέμα Φασιανῆς/Δερζηνῆς) |
by 935 | New territory and Theme of Mesopotamia | Duchy of Mesopotamia | Arsamosata | source of Aras | |
Samos† (thema Samou, Θέμα Σάμου) |
by 899 | Cibyrrhaeots, raised from independent drungariate of the Gulf | Smyrna | Southeastern Aegean islands, Ionian coast (shared with Thracesians) | ||
Sebasteia§ (thema Sebasteias, Θέμα Σεβαστείας) |
by 911 | Armeniacs, kleisoura by c. 900 | Sebasteia | NE Armenia Minor
|
Dazimon | |
Seleucia§ (thema Seleukeias, Θέμα Σελευκείας) |
by 934 | Cibyrrhaeots, from early 9th century a kleisoura | Seleucia | Western Cilicia | Claudiopolis | |
Sicily (thema Sikelias, Θέμα Σικελίας) |
by 700 | Calabria (remaining territory after Muslim conquest of Sicily) | Syracuse | Sicily and Calabria | Drepanum
| |
Strymon§ (thema Strymōnos, Θέμα Στρυμῶνος) |
by 899, probably 840s | Macedonia, raised from kleisoura (709) | Neapolis | roughly modern Greek Eastern Macedonia
|
Serres | |
Thessalonica (thema Thessalonikēs, Θέμα Θεσσαλονίκης) |
by 824 | Thessalonica
|
roughly modern Greek Central Macedonia | Moglena, Diocletianopolis, Servia
| ||
Thrace (thema Thrakēs, Θέμα Θράκης/Θρᾳκῷον) |
by 680 | ?Opsicians | Macedonia | Arcadiopolis
|
Eastern Thrace, except Constantinople
|
Rhaedestus
|
Thracesians (thema Thrakēsiōn, Thrakēsioi, Θέμα Θρᾳκησίων) |
by 687 | Former Field Army of Thrace | Chonae
|
Lydia, Ionia |
Notes:
† naval theme (in Greek thema nautikon, θέμα ναυτικόν)
§ Originally established as a kleisoura
List of new themes, 930s–1060s
These were the new major or minor themes (provinces), established during the Byzantine conquests, in the East (the so-called "Armenian" themes or generalships, strategiai), in Italy and in the Balkans.
Theme (name in Greek) | Date | Capital | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Artze (Ἄρτζε) |
970s | Artze | A minor theme attested in the Escorial Taktikon. Ceded to David III of Tao in 979, recovered after David's death in 1000 and subordinated to the catepanate of Iberia. The town was destroyed by the Turks in 1049.[48][49] |
Asmosaton (Ἀσμόσατον) |
c. 938 | Asmosaton | A minor theme, it survived until conquered by the Turks in the 1050s.[48][50] |
Boleron/Neos Strymon (thema Voleroù/Nèou Strymōnos, Θέμα Βολεροῦ/Νέου Στρυμῶνος) |
970s | Serres | |
Bulgaria (thema Boulgarias, Θέμα Βουλγαρίας) |
1018 | Scupi | established by Emperor Basil II after the victory over Samuel of Bulgaria and the fall of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018. It was based on the wider regions of Skopje and Ohrid (modern North Macedonia and south Serbia). |
Calabria (thema Kalavrias, Θέμα Καλαβρίας) |
c. 950 | Rhegion | Following the Muslim conquest of Sicily, from 902 the Theme of Sicily was limited to Calabria, but retained its original name until the middle of the 10th century |
Charpezikion (Χαρπεζίκιον) |
949 | Charpezikion | A minor theme.[51] |
Chavzizin (Χαυζίζιον) |
after 940 | Chavzizin | A minor theme covering the area of the Bingöl Dağ mountains.[52] |
Chozanon (Χόζανον) |
before 956, possibly 948/952 | Chozanon | An "Armenian theme".[50][53] |
Cyprus (thema Kyprou, Θέμα Κύπρου) |
965 | Leukosia | Byzantine-Arab condominium from 688 until the definite Byzantine reconquest in 965. |
Derzene (Δερζηνῆ) |
948/952 | Chozanon | A minor theme, the administration of Derzene was often entrusted to officials of the theme of Chaldia.[50][54] |
Edessa (thema Edēssēs, Θέμα Ἐδέσσης) |
1032 | Edessa
|
Captured by George Maniakes in 1032, it became seat of a strategos, later a doux, until conquered by the Turks in 1086.[55] |
Euphrates Cities (Παρευφρατίδαι Πόλεις) |
c. 1032 | Minor theme.[56] | |
Hexakomia or Hexapolis (Ἑξακωμία/Ἑξάπολις) |
970s | Minor theme, its name means "six villages/cities", a region between Lykandos and Melitene. It apparently was also an episcopal see.[56][57] | |
Iberia (θέμα Ἰβηρίας) |
c. 1001 or c. 1023 | Theodosiopolis | Formed out of the territories of David III of Tao–Tayk, which he bequeathed to Basil II. The date of establishment is disputed among scholars. United with Ani in 1045 and with Kars in 1064.[58] |
Kama (Κάμα) |
970s | Minor theme attested only in the Escorial Tactikon, location uncertain.[56][59] | |
Lucania (thema Leukanias, Θέμα Λευκανίας) |
968 | Tursi | |
Manzikert (Ματζικέρτ) |
1000 | Manzikert | Part of the territories inherited from David III of Tao, it was the seat of a strategos, later probably a subordinate of the doux of Vaspurakan.[60] |
Melitene (Μελιτηνή) |
970s | Melitene | Became an imperial curatorship (kouratoreia) after conquered by John Kourkouas in 934.[61] |
Paristrion/Paradounavon (thema Paristriou/Paradoùnavon, Θέμα Παριστρίου/Παραδούναβον) |
1020 | Dorostrolon | |
Samosata (Σαμόσατα) |
958 | Samosata | Became the seat of a strategos after the Byzantine conquest in 958.[62] |
Sirmium (thema Sirmiou, Θέμα Σιρμίου) |
1018 | Sirmium | Established in 1018 at the northwestern part of the Bulgarian Empire (Syrmia) |
Tarantas (Τάραντας) |
970s | Tarantas | Minor theme attested only in the Escorial Taktikon.[56][63] |
Taron (Ταρών) |
966/7 | A dependency of the Empire since the early 10th century, the region of Taron became a theme in 966/7 and remained a Byzantine province until lost to the Turks after Manzikert.[64] | |
Tephrike/Leontokome §(thema Tephrikēs/Leontokōmēs, Θέμα Τεφρικῆς/Λεωντοκώμης) |
934/944 | Tephrike | Formed as a kleisoura after the Byzantine reconquest of the Tephrike, renamed Leontokome under Leo VI the Wise, became a theme in the 930s.[65]
|
Theodosiopolis (Θεοδοσιούπολις) |
949, again in 1000 | Theodosiopolis | Formed as a theme after the Byzantine conquest in 949, ceded to David III of Tao in 979, recovered in 1000, it became the capital of the theme of Iberia. |
Vaasprakania (Βαασπρακανία) |
1021/2 | Established when |
Later themes, 12th–13th centuries
Theme (name in Greek) | Date | Capital | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Maiandros | after 1204 | a minor theme of the Nicaean period, which eventually became part of the southern Thracesian theme.[67]
| |
Mylasa and Melanoudion | 1143 | a minor theme comprising the territories in Asia Minor south of the Maeander valley, created from parts of the Cibyrrhaeot and Thracesian themes. Its existence continued under the Nicaean Empire.[68]
| |
Neokastra | between 1162 and 1173 | created from the northern Thracesian theme as part of Manuel Komnenos' reorganization of the Asiatic frontier. Its existence continued under the Nicaean Empire.[69]
|
See also
References
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- ^ Haldon 1999, pp. 86–87
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- ^ a b c d Kühn 1991, p. 64
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- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 153–154
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- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 156–160
- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 160–161
- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, p. 161
- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 168–170
- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 161–162
- ^ McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001, pp. 170–171
- ^ Angold 1975, p. 247
- ^ Angold 1975, p. 248f
- ^ Angold 1975, p. 246
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