Hellas (theme)

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Theme of Hellas
Ἑλλάς, Ἑλλάδα, θέμα Ἑλλάδος
Theme of the Byzantine Empire
687/695 – 12th century

Map of Byzantine Greece c. 900, with the themes and major settlements.
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
687/695
• Dissolution into smaller districts.
12th century
Today part ofGreece

The Theme of Hellas (Greek: θέμα Ἑλλάδος, Thema Hellados) was a Byzantine military-civilian province (thema, theme) located in southern Greece. The theme encompassed parts of Central Greece, Thessaly and, until c. 800, the Peloponnese peninsula. It was established in the late 7th century, and survived until the late 11th/12th century, when it was broken up into smaller districts.

History

7th–8th centuries

The ancient term "Hellas" was already in use in the 6th century to designate southern Greece in an administrative context, being employed in the

Italy.[4]

The creation of the theme of Hellas is dated to sometime between 687 and 695, during the first reign of Emperor

Leontios, formerly strategos of the Anatolic Theme, who had fallen into disgrace following his defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis, and who thereupon rebelled against Justinian and overthrew him.[5][6] Although the contemporary sources do not apply the term "theme" to Hellas until after the 8th century, using the term strategia (στρατηγία, "generalcy") instead, it is almost certain that it was established from the outset as a full administrative entity, controlling those lands of the old province of Achaea that still remained under imperial control.[5][7] The original extent of the theme is unclear and debated, but based on the (assumed) extent of Byzantine control, its territory must have comprised the eastern coast of the mainland (eastern Central Greece with Euboea and parts of Thessaly), possibly including the eastern Peloponnese, as well as some Aegean islands like Skyros and Kea.[1][5][8] It is unclear whether Athens or Thebes was the province's original capital; most likely Thebes, as it certainly filled this role in the early 10th century. In the second half of the 10th century, however, the strategos' seat was transferred to Larissa.[7][9]

Given its lack of depth in the hinterland, the theme was originally probably oriented mostly towards the sea and comprised the coastal areas that the Byzantine navy was able to control.[5] It was not until the reign of Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741) that major land operations are recorded, and not until the early 9th century that the re-establishment of imperial control in the hinterland was completed.[10] Thus Justinian II settled several thousand Mardaites in Hellas, who provided garrisons and crews for local naval squadrons. The number of land troops on the other hand remained rather low throughout the theme's existence, numbering perhaps 2,000, according to the estimates of Warren Treadgold.[11] The fleet of Hellas played a prominent role during the anti-iconoclast revolt of 726/7. During the course of the 8th century, however, imperial authority was gradually extended to the interior. The local Slavic inhabitants were Christianized and subjected to Byzantine authority, often in autonomous districts under their own archontes.[12][13] This process was interrupted, but not halted, by another wave of Slavic settlement in c. 746/7 from Bulgaria; imperial possessions appear not to have been greatly affected, and the fact that in 766, Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775) was able to call upon 500 artisans from "Hellas and the islands" to Constantinople suggests a secured and regular contact between the province and the imperial centre.[14] The anti-Slavic expedition of the minister Staurakios in 783 restored and extended imperial control once again, especially in the Peloponnese and northern Greece. In Central Greece and Thessaly, the campaign seems to have been mostly a show of force to strengthen imperial rule and subdue the new settlers, while in the Peloponnese it probably involved actual fighting against the Slavs.[15] Although the local Slavs of the Peloponnese were not fully subdued at this time, the gradual strengthening of imperial authority eventually led to the splitting off of the Peloponnese to form a separate theme around or soon after the year 800.[15]

9th–12th centuries

During the 9th and early 10th centuries, Hellas suffered from

Byzantine reconquest of Crete in 960–961,[19] but the Bulgarian threat was renewed under Tsar Samuel, who occupied Thessaly in 986 and launched several devastating raids into Central Greece and the Peloponnese until his defeat at the Battle of Spercheios in 997.[20]

During the 10th and 11th centuries, Hellas was often governed jointly with the Peloponnese under a single strategos, and as the civilian administration rose in importance, the same practice appears there as well, with

kritai being appointed for both themes.[1][21][22] Thessaly appears to have been detached from Hellas and joined to the theme of Thessalonica from the early 11th century—though the Spercheios valley remained part of Hellas—until sometime in the 12th century.[23] The strategos of Hellas is still attested for much of the 11th century, and a doux of Thebes and Euripus after the middle of the 12th century.[24] By the end of the 11th century, the joint administration of Hellas and the Peloponnese came under the control of the megas doux, the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy. Due to the latter's absence from the province, however, the local administration remained under the local praetor, a position often held during this period by senior and distinguished officials like the legal scholars Alexios Aristenos and Nicholas Hagiotheodorites.[21][25] Increasingly, however, smaller jurisdictions appeared within the boundaries of both themes. These eventually evolved into the smaller fiscal districts variously termed horia (sing. horion), chartoularata (sing. chartoularaton), and episkepseis (sing. episkepsis) in the 12th century,[a] while the old themes of Hellas and the Peloponnese gradually withered away as administrative entities.[21][26] The horia in particular are only attested for Greece, and appear to have been based at Larissa, Thebes and Euripus, Athens, Corinth, and Patras.[26]

The 11th century was largely a period of peace for southern Greece, interrupted only by raids during the

Italian maritime republics, with the Republic of Venice first and foremost, began to establish their presence in the region towards the end of the century, signalling the beginning of the Italians' ascendancy in maritime commerce and their gradual takeover of the Byzantine economy: in the aftermath of the failed Norman invasion, Alexios I granted the first trading privileges to the Venetians in exchange for their naval aids against Norman fleets, such as immunity from taxation and the right to set up trade colonies in certain towns including Constantinople itself. In Hellas itself Euripus, Thebes, and Athens were among those towns. Alexios' successors tried to curb these privileges with successes in part — and leading to the Venetian sacking of Euripus in 1171 in retaliation - but in 1198 Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) was forced to concede even more extensive ones, allowing the Venetians to create trade stations virtually in all cities situated close to the coast.[27]

In 1148, the Normans under

Metropolitan of Athens, Michael Choniates. This decline was temporarily halted under Andronikos I Komnenos (r. 1182–1185), who sent the capable Nikephoros Prosouch as praetor, but resumed after Andronikos' fall.[29]

At the turn of the 13th century the Byzantine Empire's decay was in full swing. In the northwestern Peloponnese,

Latin states formed in the former area of Hellas were the Duchy of Athens, the Marquisate of Bodonitsa, the Lordship of Salona, and the Triarchy of Negroponte.[1][31]

Notes

References

  1. ^ a b c d e ODB, "Hellas" (T. E. Gregory), p. 911.
  2. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 52.
  3. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 54–55.
  4. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 55–56.
  5. ^ a b c d e Koder & Hild 1976, p. 57.
  6. ^ Pertusi 1952, p. 170.
  7. ^ a b Nesbitt & Oikonomides 1994, p. 22.
  8. ^ Pertusi 1952, p. 171.
  9. ^ Pertusi 1952, p. 172.
  10. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 57, 59–60.
  11. ^ Treadgold 1995, pp. 26, 66–69, 72.
  12. ^ Nesbitt & Oikonomides 1994, pp. 22–24.
  13. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 57–58.
  14. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 58–59.
  15. ^ a b Koder & Hild 1976, p. 59.
  16. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 60.
  17. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 60–61.
  18. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 61.
  19. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 62.
  20. ^ a b Koder & Hild 1976, p. 63.
  21. ^ a b c Nesbitt & Oikonomides 1994, pp. 22, 62.
  22. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 61, 66.
  23. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 62, 66.
  24. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 66.
  25. ^ Magdalino 2002, p. 234.
  26. ^ a b c Koder & Hild 1976, p. 67.
  27. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 64.
  28. ^ a b Koder & Hild 1976, p. 65.
  29. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, pp. 65–66.
  30. ^ Koder & Hild 1976, p. 68.
  31. ^ a b Koder & Hild 1976, p. 69.
  32. ^ Magdalino 2002, pp. 162ff., 234.
  33. ^ Magdalino 2002, pp. 234–235.

Sources

  • .
  • Koder, Johannes; Hild, Friedrich (1976). Tabula Imperii Byzantini, Band 1: Hellas und Thessalia (in German). Vienna: .
  • .
  • Nesbitt, John; .
  • Pertusi, A. (1952). Constantino Porfirogenito: De Thematibus (in Italian). Rome, Italy: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
  • Treadgold, Warren T. (1995). Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. .