Theobroma cacao

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Cacao and Cocoa.

Theobroma cacao
Cacao fruits on the tree
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Theobroma
Species:
T. cacao
Binomial name
Theobroma cacao
Synonyms[1][2]
  • Cacao minaGaertn.
  • Cacao minus Gaertn.
  • Cacao sativa Aubl.
  • Cacao theobroma Tussac
  • Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke
  • Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec.
  • Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif.
  • Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) León
  • Theobroma cacao var. typica Cif.
  • Theobroma caribaea Sweet
  • Theobroma integerrima Stokes
  • Theobroma kalagua De Wild.
  • Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli
  • Theobroma pentagonum Bernoulli
  • Theobroma saltzmanniana Bernoulli
  • Theobroma sapidum Pittier
  • Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey
  • Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev.
  • Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev.
  • Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
ÖBG Bayreuth
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Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small (6–12 m (20–39 ft) tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae.[1][3] Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate.[4] Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–50 cm (4–20 in) long and 5–10 cm (2–4 in) broad.

Description

Flowers

The

calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) G(5).[5]

While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by

Forcipomyiinae.[6][7] Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators.[7]

Fruit

The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp.

The seeds are the main ingredient of

jelly, and cream. Usually discarded until practices changed in the 21st century, the fermented pulp may be distilled into an alcoholic beverage.[8] Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter
.

The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine.[9]

Nomenclature

The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa-tree".[10]

Taxonomy

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae.[1]

In 2008, researchers proposed a new classification based upon

genomic criteria: 10 groups have been named according to their geographic origin or the traditional cultivar name. These groups are: Amelonado, Criollo, Nacional, Contamana, Curaray, Cacao guiana, Iquitos, Marañon, Nanay, and Purús.[11]

Distribution and domestication

T. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern

last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium
for species.

Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated.[citation needed]

Currency system

Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major

Classical Nahuatl: xiquipilli) of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans.[15] The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire.[16]

Cultivation

See also: Cocoa bean

In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly 10,196,725 hectares (25,196,660 acres) worldwide.[17] Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots.[18] A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste.

Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario.[19] The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao').[20]

The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease-resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans.[21]

Major cocoa bean processors include

Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources[citation needed]. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction.[22] Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time.[22]

Production

Cocoa bean production – 2018
Country Production
(tonnes)
 Ivory Coast 1,963,949
 Ghana 947,632
 Indonesia 593,832
 Nigeria 332,927
 Cameroon 307,867
 Brazil 239,387
World 5,252,377
Source:
FAOSTAT of the United Nations[23]

In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was 5.3 million metric tons (5.8 million short tons), led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%).[23]

Conservation

Cacao flowers
Theobroma cacao

The pests and diseases to which cacao is subject, along with climate change, mean that new varieties will be needed to respond to these challenges. Breeders rely on the genetic diversity conserved in field

genebanks to create new varieties, because cacao has recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored in a conventional genebank.[24] In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy.[25] The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates[14] suggests that many of those protected areas will no longer be suitable for cacao by 2050. It also identifies an area around Iquitos in Peru that will remain suitable for cacao and that is home to considerable genetic diversity, and recommends that this area be considered for protection. Other projects, such as the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre
, aim to combat cacao diseases and preserve genetic diversity.

Phytopathogens (parasitic organisms) cause much damage to Theobroma cacao plantations around the world. Many of those phytopathogens, which include many of the pests named below, were analyzed using mass spectrometry and allow for guiding on the correct approaches to get rid of the specific phytopathogens. This method was found to be quick, reproducible, and accurate showing promising results in the future to prevent damage to Theobroma cacao by various phytopathogens.[26]

A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya.[27]

Pests

See also: List of cacao diseases

Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production.[28]

Genome

Genomic information
Map showing genetic clusters of Theobroma cacao
NCBI genome ID572
Ploidydiploid
Genome size345.99 Mb
Number of chromosomes10 pairs
Year of completion2010

The genome of T. cacao is diploid, its size is 430 Mbp, and it comprises 10 chromosome pairs (2n=2x=20). In September 2010, a team of scientists announced a draft sequence of the cacao genome (Matina1-6 genotype).[29] In a second, unrelated project, the International Cocoa Genome Sequencing Consortium-ICGS, coordinated by CIRAD,[30] first published[31] in December 2010 (online, paper publication in January 2011), the sequence of the cacao genome, of the Criollo cacao (of a landrace from Belize, B97-61/B2). In their publication, they reported a detailed analysis of the genomic and genetic data.

The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the

dicotyledonous plants,[32]
and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs.

The genome sequence enables cacao molecular biology and breeding for elite varieties through marker-assisted selection, in particular for genetic resistance to

Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are using CRISPR to adjust DNA for improved hardiness of cacao in hot climates.[33]

History of cultivation

The cacao tree, native of the Amazon rainforest, was first domesticated at least 5,300 years ago, in equatorial South America from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in what is present-day southeast Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe Province) by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture before being introduced in Mesoamerica.[34][35]

In Mesoamerica, ceramic vessels with residues from the preparation of cacao beverages have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the

Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico dates cacao's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC.[36] On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating even earlier, to 1900 BC.[36] The initial domestication was probably related to the making of a fermented, thus alcoholic, beverage.[37] In 2018, researchers who analysed the genome of cultivated cacao trees concluded that the domesticated cacao trees all originated from a single domestication event that occurred about 3,600 years ago somewhere in Central America.[38]

Several mixtures of cacao are described in ancient texts, for ceremonial or medicinal, as well as culinary, purposes. Some mixtures included

hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao is also believed to have been ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes.[citation needed] Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.[41]

Modern history

Toasted cacao beans

The first European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with

pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica. These include the Oaxacan beverage known as tejate
.

Culture

The

Aztec) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao (cacahuatl: "bitter water"), in a mountain filled with other plant foods.[45] Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering the cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage was used as a ritual only by men, as it was believed to be an intoxicating food unsuitable for women and children.[46]

Gallery

  • kakaw (cacao) written in the Maya script
    kakaw (cacao) written in the Maya script
  • Immigrant workers from India relaxing on a cacao estate in Trinidad, 1903.
    Immigrant workers from India relaxing on a cacao estate in Trinidad, 1903[47]
  • Floral diagram showing partial inflorescence
    Floral diagram showing partial inflorescence
  • T. cacao, leaves, fruits and seed. A. Bernecker, 1864.
    T. cacao, leaves, fruits and seed. A. Bernecker, 1864.
  • Young cacao trees, Côte d'Ivoire
    Young cacao trees, Côte d'Ivoire
  • Macrophotography of Theobroma cacao flower (closed)
    Macrophotography of Theobroma cacao flower (closed)
  • Macrophotography of T. cacao flower (open)
    Macrophotography of T. cacao flower (open)
  • Flowers
    Flowers
  • Cacao seed in the fruit or pocha
    Cacao seed in the fruit or pocha
  • T. cacao fruit, dried
    T. cacao fruit, dried

See also

  • Ceratonia siliqua
    , the carob tree
  • Kola nut

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Theobroma cacao L. Sp. Pl. : 782 (1753)". World Flora Online. World flora Consortium. 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  2. ^ "Mentha canadensis L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  3. ^ "Theobroma cacao". Encyclopedia of Life. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  4. ^ "Cocoa". Drugs.com. 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
  5. ISBN 978-0-521-49346-8. Archived
    from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
  6. University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )
  7. ^
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  8. ^ Bell, Katie K. "Cacao Cocktails: A New Tequila-Like Spirit Distilled from Cacao Fruit". Forbes. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  9. ISBN 978-1-84973-912-2
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  10. ^ "Cacao". Etymology Online Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  11. ^
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  12. ^ "History of cocoa (translated)". National Association of Exporters and Industrialists of Cacao of Ecuador. 2015. Archived from the original on 21 February 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
  13. doi:10.3390/d2010072. Archived
    from the original on 5 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
  14. ^
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  15. ^ J. Bergmann (1969).
  16. ^ S. Coe (1994).
  17. ^ "Cocoa beans, area harvested in 2016, Crops/World regions/Cocoa beans/Area harvested from pick lists". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2017. Archived from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  18. ^ "A strategy to safeguard the future of chocolate". Bioversity International. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  19. ^ "Varieties". All about Chocolate. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
  20. ^ "Branding Matters: The Success of Chuao Cocoa Bean". Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
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  23. ^ a b "Cocoa bean production in 2018, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2019. Archived from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
  24. ^ "Cacao Collections". CacaoNet. Archived from the original on 14 May 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  25. ^ "Global Strategy – cacaonet". sites.google.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  26. S2CID 3764608
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  28. ^ "Cocoa Crop Protection". Archived from the original on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  29. ^ "Welcome to the Cacao Genome Project – Cacao Genome Database". Cacaogenomedb.org. Archived from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  30. ^ The International Cocoa Genome Sequencing Consortium federates efforts from circa 20 different institutions from six countries (France, USA, Côte d'Ivoire, Brazil, Venezuela and Trinidad et Tobago). Financing comes from several public and private sources from France, USA and Venezuela, among which the chocolate brands Valrhona (France) and Hershey's (USA). See : http://www.cirad.fr/actualites/toutes-les-actualites/communiques-de-presse/2010/decryptage-du-genome-du-cacaoyer Archived 16 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
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  33. ^ Brodwin, Erin (31 December 2017). "Chocolate is on track to go extinct in 40 years". Business Insider, Inc. Archived from the original on 31 January 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
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  35. ^ "Sweet discovery pushes back the origins of chocolate: Researchers find cacao originated 1,500 years earlier than previously thought". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
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    from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
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  38. ^ ""Cacao analysis dates the dawn of domesticated chocolate trees to 3,600 years ago", Eurekalert, October 24, 2018". Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018.
  39. ^ Kidder (1947).
  40. ^ Hammond and Miksicek (1981); Turner and Miksicek (1984).
  41. ^ Davis, Nicola (29 October 2018). "Origin of chocolate shifts 1,400 miles and 1,500 years". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
  42. ^ (Coe and Coe 1996)
  43. ^ Alexander Walker (1822). Colombia, relación geográfica, topográfica, agrícola, comercial y política de este país: adaptada para todo lector en general y para el comerciante y colono en particular. Tomo II. Londres: Banco de la República, pp. 284.
  44. ^ (Bogin 1997, Coe 1996, Montejo 1999, Tedlock 1985)
  45. ^ (Coe 1996, Townsend 1992)
  46. PMID 10917925
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  47. ^ Head 1903, p. ii (frontispiece)

Further reading

External links

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