Theodora (wife of Theophilos)
Theodora II | |
---|---|
Amorian dynasty (through marriage) | |
Father | Marinos |
Mother | Theoktiste Phlorina |
Theodora
Possibly of
Theodora proved to be fully capable of governing the empire. Though only in her late twenties, she led well and inspired loyalty, was surrounded by experienced officials, and had no obvious rivals. The reintroduction of icon veneration was made without much issue, though the
Background and early life
Theodora was born c. 815,
Theodora's rural Paphlagonian family[14] is generally believed to have been of Armenian descent,[1][12] although no contemporary sources describe her as being Armenian.[15] Though a link between Theodora's family and the Armenian noble clan of the Mamikonian has been suggested in the past, there are not enough sources to prove such a connection.[16] In any event, Theodora's family associated with certain Armenian families in the capital. She was the niece of Manuel the Armenian, a prominent Byzantine general who in 819/820 briefly commanded all five of the empire's Asian provinces. It is possible that the family was involved in trade on the Black Sea, as they owned ships used for commerce. It is not clear whether Theodora's family, with the exception of Manuel, were well connected or well established prior to her becoming empress.[17]
Empress consort
Selection and marriage
In 830,
Theophilos was eager for a bride and made the affair into a spectacle, assembling the women in a newly erected and splendid hall in the imperial palace. In the end, Theophilos chose Theodora, and indicated his choice by giving her a
Activities as empress consort
After her coronation, Theodora donated 15 pounds (7 kg) of gold each to the
Throughout Theophilos's reign, Theodora apparently continued to secretly venerate icons despite her husband's disapproval.[1][27] It is not clear to which extent she practiced these beliefs, or to what extent Theophilos was aware of them.[27][28] For the most part it would have been possible for Theodora to keep the icon veneration secret given the privacy of the female quarters of the imperial palace.[28] If he was aware, it is also not clear to what extent the differing religious convictions divided them on a personal level.[29] At one point she succeeded in convincing her husband to release the imprisoned iconophile painter Lazarus Zographos.[1]
Relations between the emperor and empress were not always good. In 839, Theophilos was discovered to have begun an affair with one of Theodora's attendants, which the empress took badly and made public. Theophilos broke off the affair, apologized to his wife, and as part of his apologies constructed a new palace, the Karianos, for their daughters.[26] According to a possibly invented account,[29] the couple also had a falling out after Theophilos spotted a fine merchant ship in the harbor, asked who it belonged to, and was informed that it belonged to his wife.[30] Deeming merchant activities to be incompatible with imperial life,[29] Theophilos exclaimed "What! Has my wife made me, an emperor, into a merchant?" and immediately had the ship and its cargo burnt.[30]
Theodora's icon veneration sometimes led to conflict with her husband. She often sent their daughters to the monastery where Euphrosyne had retired to after 830. There, unbeknownst to Theophilos, the daughters were taught to venerate icons. Though the older daughters were smart and kept quiet of this, the younger daughter Pulcheria, about two years old, told her father in the middle of 839 of the "beautiful dolls" kept in a box in the monastery and how they would pull them to their faces and kiss them. Furious, Theophilos forbade his daughters from seeing Euphrosyne again and might also have forced Euphrosyne to leave the monastery.[26] In any event, Theodora's and Euphrosyne's secret iconophile teachings had already been successful; none of Theophilos's and Theodora's children grew up to become iconoclasts.[31]
Theodora celebrated various public ceremonies together with her husband. Though she had barely witnessed such ceremonies before becoming empress, there is no evidence that she ever erred in her actions, perhaps she was helped by Euphrosyne. Theodora also took part in celebrations of her husband's military achievements, appearing together with Theophilos at triumphs in 831 and 837, and hosting a special reception for the emperor and his generals at Hieria after his first military victory.[34] After about twelve years on the throne, Theophilos died of dysentery on 20 January 842, probably younger than 30.[35][36] On his deathbed, Theophilos had delivered an eloquent speech to his courtiers and officials, imploring them to defend the rights of his wife and their two-year-old son Michael III.[35]
Rule
Just as had happened after the death of emperor Leo IV in 780, Theophilos's death in 842 meant that an iconoclast emperor was succeeded by his iconophile wife and their underage son. Unlike Leo IV's wife Irene, who later ended up deposing her son Constantine VI and ruling as empress in her own right, Theodora was not as ruthless and did not need to use as drastic methods to retain power. Though she was only in her late twenties, she had several able and loyal advisors and was a capable leader who inspired loyalty.[37] Theodora never remarried, which allowed her to maintain her own independence and authority.[38]
Among Theodora's most prominent advisors and supporters were her brothers Bardas and Petronas, her close relative
The extent of Theodora's power is somewhat debated in modern scholarship. The
Restoration of icon veneration
As she had considerable support, Theodora restored the veneration of icons in March 843 at the Council of Constantinople,[1][e] just fourteen months after Theophilos's death,[49] ending the second Byzantine Iconoclasm (814–843).[37] In order to counteract opposition and save the legacy of her husband, Theodora claimed that Theophilos had repented of Iconoclasm on his deathbed.[37] This story also ensured that Theophilos's iconoclasm would not adversely affect Michael's reign in the future.[50] Though religious policy would normally have been decided in conjunction with religious officials, nearly all bishops of the empire had been forced to profess Iconoclasm. As such, Theodora instead assembled a group of officials, courtiers and clerics.[37] The most prominent members of the assembly were Theodora herself, Theoktistos, Niketiates and Theodora's two brothers; more akin to a family affair than a large council.[51] The group met at Theoktistos's house, where they condemned Iconoclasm through accepting the Second Council of Nicaea (which in 787 had decided against Iconoclasm).[37]
The iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople,
One symbolic action taken to mark the restoration of the icons was the desecration of the tomb of emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775), a champion of iconoclasm. His remains were removed from his tomb in the Church of the Holy Apostles and burned, with the ashes scattered so that no site would ever be associated with his burial. His tomb in the Church of the Holy Apostles was replaced with the tomb of Empress Irene, with her remains being transferred from her previous resting place on the island of Prinkipos, finally reuniting her remains with those of her husband and placing her alongside the other rulers of the empire.[53] It is possible that Theodora admired Irene on account of her being a previous female ruler as well as a previous restorer of the icons.[53][54] Irene's grave would in later years often be commemorated as the resting place of an iconophile hero.[55]
Though ordinary iconoclasm swiftly disappeared, a larger religious threat were the
Foreign policy
In order to demonstrate that Orthodoxy, just as well as Iconoclasm, could win victories for the empire, Theodora later in 853 organized an expedition to retake the island of
Save for some minor attacks and raids in the east, and larger engagements in
Shortly after the sack of Anazarbus, Boris I of Bulgaria began making threats towards the empire as the Bulgarian treaty was once more about to expire, however, he was convinced to renew it without the need for military action.[60] Later chronicles, probably fancifully, claimed that Theodora had threatened Boris that she would lead the Byzantine army in person against him if he invaded the empire, and that she had stated that Boris achieving victory over a female head of state would hardly be considered a great achievement.[61]
By the end of Theodora's reign, the empire had gained the upper hand over both Bulgaria and the Abbasid Caliphate.[62] At some point the Slavic tribes that had settled in the Peloponnese had also successfully been forced to pay tribute.[57] Despite continuing a policy of high wages for the soldiers, instituted by Theophilos, Theodora maintained a small surplus in the imperial budget and even modestly increased the imperial gold reserves.[57][62]
Fall from power
Michael III turned fifteen in 855, bringing him near the age when he could rule in his own right. According to the tradition of Simeon Logothete, he took Eudokia Ingerina as a mistress, and later married her to his co-emperor Basil I,[62] though this narrative is challenged. Symeon's neutrality is disputed, and other contemporary sources do not speak of this conspiracy, leading several prominent Byzantists, such as Ostrogorsky and Adontz to dismiss this narrative.[63] Whatever the case, although Theodora's reign had been highly successful, both she and Theoktistos were dissatisfied with Michael III, who neglected matters of state in preference of chariot racing, drinking and spending time with his alleged mistress Eudokia Ingerina. In the hope that marriage could perhaps steer him on the right course, Theodora organized a bride-show for her son. Though Eudokia Ingerina was allowed to be present, Theodora and Theoktistos disqualified her on account of not being a virgin. Michael was then married to Eudokia Dekapolitissa, against his will.[62]
Annoyed by not being able to choose his own wife, Michael resolved to overthrow his mother and the regents.[57][62] Michael was also concerned about unfounded rumors that Theodora planned to remarry, perhaps to Theoktistos,[1] or marry one of Michael's sisters off to some suitable noble. These rumors, started by Bardas, further detailed that Theodora planned to retain power, elevate someone else to the throne and blind and depose Michael, following in Irene's footsteps.[64] After years in exile, Bardas was summoned back to the capital by Michael and together they had Theoktistos assassinated in November 855.[57][62] The conspiracy, which was also supported by Kalomaria (one of Theodora's sisters) and Theophanes (the chief of the wardrobe), may not originally have been intended to kill Theoktistos, and instead just to humiliate him and force him into exile. At a critical moment, however, Michael cried out to his guards to kill Theoktistos. According to the later writings of Joseph Genesius, Theodora learned of what was happening and rushed to save Theoktistos, but was scared away by one of the conspirators.[65] Distraught at the loss of her friend and confidant, Theodora was enraged at Michael and the other conspirators for several months.[62][65] She is recorded to have berated him for killing the man who had "acted as a second father to him".[64] Unable to placate his mother,[62] Michael proclaimed himself sole emperor on 15 March 856,[1] formally deposing her as empress and stripping her of the rank of Augusta.[65] The final catalyst for Theodora's deposition may have been her possibly being a part of a plot to assassinate Bardas.[65] It is also possible that some senators wished to restore her to power, but Theodora refused.[66] Theodora accepted the deposition, refraining from causing any of the damage that would result from a struggle for power, and retired in peace.[62]
Later life and legacy
Theodora, Empress of the Romans | |
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Empress | |
Venerated in | Eastern Orthodoxy |
Major shrine | Metropolitan Church of the Virgin Mary Spilaiotissa, Corfu |
Feast | 11 February |
Attributes | Imperial Vestment |
Theodora continued to live in the imperial palace until 857[67] or 858,[1] when she and Michael's sisters were expelled and confined to a convent in Gastria,[67][68] despite Patriarch Ignatios refusing to tonsure them since they were not becoming nuns willingly.[66][68] Later sources record that while in exile, Theodora took pity on a number of men who came to her for protection for various reasons and helped them.[66] It is possible that she was released around 863[69] and was allowed by Michael to play a ceremonial role.[68] Perhaps she was restored as Augusta.[38] Theodora continued to resent Bardas, who reached high offices under Michael. Around 866, she sent him a tunic that was intentionally too short for him and had a golden partridge on it, interpreted by Bardas as a sign of deceit.[70]
Towards the end of both of their lives, Theodora and Michael reconciled. In the autumn of 867, Theodora invited Michael to a dinner on 25 September and both seemed to be taking measures to ensure that it would be an agreeable occasion. Their dinner never took place since Michael was murdered by his friend and co-emperor Basil I after a dinner on the day before.[71] Theodora had long mistrusted Basil but had been powerless to act against him.[49] She died c. 867,[11] at some point after Michael's murder.[68] The last time she is attested was at Michael's burial, when she and her daughters are recorded as having been present and weeping over his body. She was buried in the convent in Gastria.[72]
Theodora was highly regarded by later generations[12] and she was remembered as a formidable leader, both because of her bringing an end to Iconoclasm and her successful dealings with foreign powers.[61] Theodora is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on 11 February for her role in the restoration of the icons.[39][68] Lynda Garland assessed Theodora as "a woman of character, who was able to exclude her brother from power without difficulty, who was not afraid to speak her mind when necessary, and who was fully capable of governing the empire".[73]
In 2022, the
Notes
- ^ She is sometimes enumerated as Theodora II,[3][4] with Theodora, the wife (and in certain aspects co-ruler) of Justinian I, being considered Theodora I.[5] In this arrangement the later empress regnant Theodora Porphyrogenita is considered to be Theodora III.[4][6]
- ^ An imperial seal from Theodora's reign also demonstrates her status as empress regnant in that it ascribes the (masculine) title "Emperor of the Romans" not only to the young Michael III but also to Theodora and her daughter Thekla.[10]
- ^ A wide array of contemporary sources, both Byzantine and foreign, describe Theodora as exceptionally beautiful. The contemporary poet Al-Ghazal, sent as an emissary from the Emirate of Córdoba in 840, wrote that he was unable to take his eyes off of her while she was in the same room, despite Theophilos being astonished at his rudeness, and that "she had captivated him with her black eyes".[22][23]
- ^ It is unclear why Theodora's mother Theoktiste, and not Theophilos's step-mother Euphrosyne, who actually instructed the children, is depicted.[32][33]
- ^ The decision to restore the icons is likely to have been Theodora's own idea and it demonstrates her authority as ruler and decision-maker. A figure like Theoktistos, who up until recently had been an iconoclast, is unlikely to have taken the initiative for such an action.[33]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m ODB, p. 2037.
- ^ Theodora in the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Karagianni 2013, pp. 15, 22.
- ^ a b c Elton 1825, p. 304.
- ^ Karagianni 2013, p. 22.
- ^ Marciniak & Nilsson 2020, p. 386.
- ^ Baumstark 2011, p. 128.
- ^ Bussell 1910, p. xiii.
- ^ Greenwalt 2002, p. 344.
- ^ a b c d e Garland 1999, p. 102.
- ^ a b c d Treadgold 1997, p. 438.
- ^ a b c d e f Garland 1999, p. 96.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 186.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 185.
- ^ Kaldellis 2019, p. 172.
- ^ ODB, p. 1279.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 188.
- ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 437.
- ^ a b c d e f Garland 1999, p. 98.
- ^ a b c Herrin 2002, p. 190.
- ^ Bury 1912, p. 82.
- ^ Bury 1912, p. 84.
- ^ Herrin 2002, pp. 200–201.
- ^ a b Herrin 2002, p. 171.
- ^ a b c Herrin 2002, p. 191.
- ^ a b c d Garland 1999, p. 99.
- ^ a b c Garland 1999, p. 100.
- ^ a b Herrin 2013, p. 62.
- ^ a b c Herrin 2002, p. 192.
- ^ a b Garland 1999, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Herrin 2013, p. 105.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 181.
- ^ a b c Herrin 2013, p. 76.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 199.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 445.
- ^ ODB, p. 2066.
- ^ a b c d e f g Treadgold 1997, p. 446.
- ^ a b Herrin 2013, p. 30.
- ^ a b Herrin 2002, p. 2.
- ^ Bury 1912, pp. 144, 159.
- ^ Ringrose 2008, p. 78.
- ^ Griffith 2001, p. 155.
- ^ Garland 1999, p. 103.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 216.
- ^ a b Herrin 2002, p. 202.
- ^ Herrin 2013, p. 66.
- ^ Greenwalt 2002, pp. 343–344.
- ^ Herrin 2013, p. 327.
- ^ a b Herrin 2013, p. 213.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 204.
- ^ a b Garland 1999, p. 101.
- ^ a b c d e Treadgold 1997, p. 447.
- ^ a b Herrin 2002, p. 213.
- ^ Herrin 2013, pp. 204, 211.
- ^ Herrin 2013, p. 211.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 448.
- ^ a b c d e f Garland 1999, p. 104.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 215.
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 448–449.
- ^ a b c d Treadgold 1997, pp. 448–450.
- ^ a b c d Herrin 2002, p. 236.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Treadgold 1997, p. 450.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 233.
- ^ a b Herrin 2002, p. 226.
- ^ a b c d Garland 1999, p. 105.
- ^ a b c Herrin 2002, p. 228.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 451.
- ^ a b c d e ODB, p. 2038.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 232.
- ^ Herrin 2002, p. 229.
- ^ Herrin 2002, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Garland 1999, p. 107.
- ^ Garland 1999, p. 108.
- ^ "General Convention Virtual Binder". www.vbinder.net. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
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Further reading
- ISBN 978-1-897747-32-2.
- ISBN 978-3110151794.