Theodore II Laskaris
Theodore II Doukas Laskaris | |||||
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Elena of Bulgaria | |||||
Issue more... | Irene Doukaina Laskarina Eudoxia Laskarina John IV Laskaris | ||||
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House | Laskaris (matrilineal) Vatatzes (patrilineal) | ||||
Father | John III Doukas Vatatzes | ||||
Mother | Irene Laskarina |
Theodore II Doukas Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris (
Emperor John III arranged for Theodore to marry
Theodore succeeded his father on 4 November 1254. He dismissed many high officials and army commanders of aristocratic origin, replacing them with loyal friends, including some of low birth. The same year, he made a defensive alliance with
Early life
Childhood
Theodore was born to Emperor
Theodore was his parents' only child. His mother had been in a horse riding accident and could not bear children after his birth. He adopted his mother's family name.[6] He was "raised as usual for a royal child", according to his own words, most probably referring to his upbringing in the women's quarter of the palace and the luxury surrounding him. His childhood was joyful and he "often received greatest solace" from his father. He also remembered his parents did not punish him when his tutor had accused him of misdemeanors.[7]
Education
Theodore was probably entrusted to an elementary teacher's care in 1228 as most Nicaean aristocratic children's formal education began around the age of six. As part of his education, he memorized texts from the Bible and prayed three times a day. He could quote from the
Negotiations over Theodore's marriage with
Theodore took philosophy classes from a most renowned teacher,
Theodore's mother died late in 1239.[14] Vatatzes remarried in late summer of 1240, taking an illegitimate daughter of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1220–1250), Constanza, whose name was changed to Anna. She was around ten and Vatatzes started a scandalous affair with one of her Italian ladies-in-waiting, named Marchesina. She was granted the right to wear purple shoes and to harness her horse with purple trappings, like the Emperor's closest relatives.[15]
Youth
First administrative tasks
If Vatatzes followed the practice of his predecessors, Theodore was proclaimed co-ruler while still a child. In his history, Akropolites mentioned Theodore as a co-emperor when narrating events that occurred from 1235 to 1237 and in 1242. In his correspondence, Theodore referred to himself as "my imperial majesty" from around 1242. He was not crowned during his father's lifetime—a likely explanation for the denial of his co-emperorship by two later Byzantine historians, George Pachymeres and Nicephorus Gregoras.[16] Theodore's authority was considerable: he granted estates and salaries and intervened in legal disputes. On Blemmydes' petition, he ordered Nikephoros, the metropolitan bishop of Ephesus, to return an allegedly unlawfully purchased piece of land to Blemmydes' monastery. During his father's absence, he presided over sessions of the privy council and proposed candidates to vacant Church offices.[17]
John III Vatatzes again laid siege to Constantinople in May 1241, but he quickly realized he could not capture the city. He started peace negotiations, and Theodore accompanied his father to the meetings with the Latin envoys. They signed a two-year truce on 24 June. Ivan II Asen died in the same month and his death weakened Bulgaria. Vatatzes launched a military campaign against the Bulgarians' Epirote allies late in 1241. Before departing for the military campaign, he appointed Theodore his lieutenant in Asia Minor. Theodore, like his father and grandfather, held an itinerant court and visited most Nicaean towns and villages in Anatolia.[18]
At this time, a
Vatatzes again charged Theodore with the administration of Asia Minor when he launched a new military campaign in Thrace in 1246. After Vatatzes captured Serres, the leading citizens of Thessalonica did not risk a prolonged siege. They opened the gates of their city and paid voluntary homage to Vatatzes. As most Macedonian towns followed their example, Vatatzes almost doubled his empire's territory.[21][22]
Friends and critics
Theodore forged a bond of close friendship with a circle of young intellectuals. All born after the Latin conquest of Constantinople, they did not experience the shock of exile, unlike many of their fathers' "humiliated generation" (as Patriarch Germanus II of Constantinople referred to them). His friends' companionship helped Theodore come through his periods of melancholy, likely caused by anxiety over his public duties. His closest friend, George Mouzalon, was a page in his retinue during their childhood. The three Mouzalon brothers—George, Theodore and Andronikos—were, in Blemmydes's words, "of despicably low birth", but they were talented singers and musicians. Most of Theodore's other confidants, like Joseph Mesopotamites and Konstas Hagiotheodorites, were related to high-ranking officials and churchmen.[23]
His fellows often teased Theodore for his style of reasoning during philosophical discussions. His friends' mockery upset him but critical remarks made by bishops and aristocrats were more dangerous to his reputation. Metropolitan Nikephoros of Ephesus rebuked him for his pride and for his non-observance of the rules of
Towards sole rule
Vatatzes was making preparations for a new attack on Constantinople in the spring of 1252, but the ruler of Epirus, Michael II Komnenos Doukas (r. 1230–1266/68), invaded Nicaean territory in Macedonia. Vatatzes appointed Theodore his viceroy in Asia Minor and launched a counter-attack against Michael II, forcing him to return to Epirus. Elena of Bulgaria died unexpectedly of unknown causes before the end of August. Theodore mourned his wife for more than the customary forty days. He abandoned fasting and wearing black only on his father's command. His wife's death intensified Theodore's melancholy. He secluded himself in the palace and dedicated his time to philosophical studies and writing. He only resumed his regular visits to the towns of Asia Minor in 1253.[25][26]
Early in 1253, Emperor Frederick II's son and successor, Conrad (r. 1250–1254), forced most relatives of his father's mistress, Bianca Lancia, into exile. They fled to Nicaea and sought asylum from Bianca's daughter, Empress Constanza-Anna. Since his father was staying in Thrace, the exiles were received by Theodore. Conrad changed his mind and sent the erudite Berthold of Hohenburg, an in-law of the Lancias, to Nicaea to begin negotiations with them. While waiting for his father's return from Thrace, Theodore had philosophical conversations with Hohenburg. The study of ancient Greek philosophers had intensified in Europe, and Hohenburg asked Theodore for Greek philosophical works. This request reinforced Theodore's pride in the Greeks' ancient heritage, and he decided to publish his own works.[27]
Vatatzes returned to Nicaea in the winter of 1253. Early in 1254, he fell ill suddenly and never fully recovered. His illness made Theodore the actual ruler of the empire. Vatatzes was still alive when news of the Mongols' preparations for a new invasion of Asia Minor reached Nicaea.[28]
Reign
Accession
John III Vatatzes died in Nicaea on 4 November 1254, leaving a flourishing empire to Theodore.
Theodore forbade his father's widow, Anna-Constanza, from returning to her Sicilian homeland. This act outraged her brother,
Theodore wanted to make Blemmydes the new patriarch, but his old tutor refused. His next candidate, a hermit with an aristocratic background, Arsenios Autoreianos, accepted the offer. The new patriarch crowned and anointed Theodore emperor—on Christmas 1254. According to sources hostile to Arsenios, he was Theodore's sole nominee to the patriarchal throne although tradition required the presentation of three candidates to the electors. Arsenios's allegedly irregular appointment would give rise to the conflict known as the "Arsenite Schism", lasting from 1265 to 1310.[35] Arsenios was always Theodore's loyal supporter and obeyed his commands.[36]
Theodore did not trust the aristocrats and wrote of "illicit love affairs and very unjust plots", without naming his opponents, in a letter addressed to George Mouzalon in December 1254. The historian
Wars with Bulgaria
The young Bulgarian Tzar,
A Bulgarian renegade in Nicaean service, Dragotas, switched sides and laid siege to
A report of a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor forced Theodore to leave Macedonia in late autumn of 1255. After the report had proved false, he launched an attack against the fortress of
Theodore decided to resume negotiations about a
Michael II of Bulgaria dispatched
The peace treaty aroused much indignation in Bulgaria, enabling Michael II's cousin, Kaliman (r. 1256), to stage a plot and dethrone the Tzar. Kaliman seized the throne, but he never gained the support of the army. After Kaliman fell victim to a new plot, Rostislav Mikhailovich and Michael II's brother-in-law, Mitso (r. 1256–1257), laid claim to the throne. Most boyars (noblemen) preferred a third candidate, one of their number, Konstantin Tih (r. 1257–1277), although he was not related to the ruling Asen dynasty.[50][51][52]
Expansion
Theodore's war against Bulgaria brought about a rapprochement between Epirus and Serbia. Michael II of Epirus made a formal alliance with
Theodore received the
The Mongols invaded Asia Minor and defeated Kaykaus II on 14 October 1256. Theodore hurried back to Anatolia to oversee the preparations for its defense. Kaykaus sought asylum in Nicaea and the Mongols installed his brother,
Illness and death
Theodore fell seriously ill in November 1257. George Pachymeres, who was less than sixteen years old at the time,
Theodore's illness prevented him from commanding his troops in person. The commanders of the army in Macedonia, most of them of humble origin, recently appointed by Theodore, could not prevent the Epirotes, Albanians and Serbians from raiding Nicaean territories. Stefan Uroš I defeated the Nicaean troops near Prilep. Michael II's sister-in-law, Maria Petraliphaina, entered into a correspondence with Theodore's commander, Constantine Chabaron, making him believe that she was eager to marry him, but Chabaron was captured during their meeting. Theodore's newly assembled army of Anatolian peasants was routed at Edessa. Michael Palaiologos, who had been allowed to return from his exile, led a new army to Macedonia. He defeated the Epirotes, but Theodore ordered him to return instead of marching to Prilep. Palaiologos' withdrawal enabled Michael II to seize Prilep and capture Akropolites, who was its governor. Michael II was planning to launch an attack against Thessalonica, but Manfred of Sicily renewed his predecessors' claim to Byzantine territories in the Balkans and invaded Epirus from the west. Michael II, who did not want to abandon his plan, concluded an alliance with Manfred who expelled the Nicaean garrisons from Dyrrachium and other fortresses on the Adriatic by the end of February 1258.[32][63][64]
Konstantin Tih of Bulgaria repudiated his first wife and sued for the hand of Theodore's eldest daughter, Irene. He knew that his marriage to Irene, who was Tzar Ivan Asen II's granddaughter, could strengthen his claim to rule. Theodore wanted to confirm his peace treaty with Bulgaria and accepted Konstantin Tih's offer. Irene went to Bulgaria to marry Konstantin Tih.[65][66]
Theodore rarely left his palace at Magnesia during the last months of his life. He was convinced that sorcery caused his illness and accused his courtiers of casting spells on him, sending many of them for trial. Michael Palaiologos's sister, Maria-Martha, was the most famous victim of Theodore's paranoia. Theodore had forced her daughter, Theodora, to marry the elderly Basil Kaballarios, but the marriage was never
The aristocrats had taken an oath of loyalty to Mouzalon at Theodore's deathbed, but they soon began conspiring against him. In ten days, Mouzalon was murdered, and Michael Palaiologos assumed the regency for the child-emperor, John IV Laskaris. Palaiologos convinced the aristocrats that an empire ruled by a boy could not resist enemy attacks, and he was proclaimed co-emperor as Michael VIII (r. 1259–1282) before the end of the year. When Michael VIII and John IV were crowned together early in 1259, the Patriarch put the crown first on Michael VIII's head. After concluding an agreement with Genoa against the Latin Empire, he dispatched Alexios Strategopoulos to spy on the defences of Constantinople. Taking advantage of the absence of the bulk of the Latin army, Strategopoulos seized Constantinople by a surprise attack on 25 July 1261. Michael VIII was crowned for the second time, alone, in the Hagia Sophia.[64][50][70] The child John IV was blinded on 25 December 1261, which prevented him from ruling.[71] To emphasize that the Laskaris family had lost their imperial status, Michael VIII married off John's three sisters to minor Italian and Bulgarian noblemen.[72]
Scholarship
A man of letters devoted to philosophical and theological studies, Theodore transformed his court into a center for renowned scholars shortly after his accession to the throne.
Theodore's Satire of the Tutor, written most likely in 1240, is his earliest extant work. The satire is dedicated to his principal tutor, portraying him as an under-educated and rude man, who learned magic while staying in Bulgaria. He also wrote
Family
Neither Theodore nor Elena had reached the minimum legal age of marriage—fourteen for boys and twelve for girls—when they were married, but such an early marriage was not unique among Nicaean aristocrats and commoners. The wedding took place at
- Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria, was Emperor Michael VIII's implacable enemy until her death around 1270.[78]
- Maria, who married Nikephoros I of Epirus, deceased between early in 1257 and 1265.[79][80]
- Theodora was married off by Michael VIII to a Moreot nobleman, "Maïos Débélikourtos", according to Pachymeres and Nicephorus Gregoras. The historian Albert Failler identifies him as Matthew of Mons who held the Barony of Veligosti in the Principality of Achaea.[81]
- Eudoxia first married Count William-Peter of Ventimiglia, who died around 1280. Her second husband, Roger Arnau, Count of Pallars, died in 1288. The widowed Eudoxia had a love affair with the Aragonese admiral Bernat de Sarrià. She died in 1309.[82]
- A Bulgarian boyar, Despot Jacob Svetoslav, married Theodore's unnamed daughter, according to Pachymeres. She may have been Theodore's illegitimate daughter, because other Byzantine historians failed to mention her.[83]
- Theodore's only son, John, survived his mutilation, but he spent the rest of his life in prison. He died around 1309.[84]
Theodore's family and his relationship to Byzantine imperial families[85] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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See also
Notes
- ^ Just like Anna-Constanza, Manfred was an illegitimate child of Emperor Frederick II by Bianca Lancia. When their legitimate half-brother Conrad IV died in May 1254, Berthold of Hohenburg assumed the regency for Conrad's underage son Conradin (r. 1254–1258) in Sicily, but Berthold was forced to abdicate in Manfred's favor in August. Four years later, Manfred was crowned king of Sicily.[31]
- The schism began with mutual excommunications in 1054, and proved uncurable, although discussions about the union of the two churches began in 1112.[45]
- Adriatic coast across the Balkan Peninsula.[53]
References
- ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 57.
- ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b c d Lascaratos & Zis 1998, p. 296.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 32–34.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 57–59.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 721.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 59–60, 257 (notes 21–22).
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 68–72, 75–77.
- ^ Angold 2017, p. 738.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 65, 73–75.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 79, 85, 117–118.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 9.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 88.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 61, 258 (notes 34 and 36).
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 98–101.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 100.
- ^ Korobeinikov 2017, pp. 720–721.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92–96.
- ^ Fine 2009, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 96–97.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 109–118.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 90, 118–125.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 128–132.
- ^ Fine 2009, p. 158.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 140–145.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 147–148.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 148.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 730.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 90, 144.
- ^ a b c Nicol 1993, p. 28.
- ^ Korobeinikov 2017, p. 721.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 150, 296 (note 25).
- ^ a b c Nicol 1993, p. 27.
- ^ Angold 2017, p. 748.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 151–152.
- ^ a b c Fine 2009, p. 159.
- ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 56.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 151–154.
- ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 156–159.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 159–162, 169.
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 689–690.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, pp. 59–60.
- ^ a b Lascaratos & Zis 1998, p. 297.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 164–166.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 722.
- ^ a b Angelov 2019, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Fine 2009, pp. 170–172.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 135.
- ^ Fine 2009, p. 160.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 167.
- ^ Korobeinikov 2017, pp. 721–722.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 169–171.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 172–174.
- ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 68.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 381.
- ^ Lascaratos & Zis 1998, pp. 297–298.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 381–383.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 175–176.
- ^ a b Fine 2009, p. 161.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 67.
- ^ Fine 2009, p. 172.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Angold 1991, p. 2040.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 180.
- ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 29–36.
- ^ Failler 1980, p. 65.
- ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Angelov 2019, p. 106.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 145, 323–326, 329.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 70–71, 329–342.
- ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 62.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 72–75.
- ^ Failler 1980, p. 67.
- ^ Failler 1980, p. 68.
- ^ Fine 2009, p. 169.
- ^ Failler 1980, pp. 68–70.
- ^ Failler 1980, pp. 70–72.
- ^ Failler 1980, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Failler 1980, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 19, 28, 36, 59, 124, 161.
Sources
- Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. ISBN 978-1-108-48071-0.
- ISBN 978-0-1998-9065-1.
- Angold, Michael (2017) [2008]. "After the Fourth Crusade: the Greek Rump States and the Recovery of Byzantium". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). ISBN 978-0-521-83231-1.
- Failler, Albert (1980). "Chronologie et composition dans l'Histoire de Georges Pachymère" [Chronology and Composition in George Pachymeres' History]. ISSN 0771-3347.
- ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
- Kanellopoulos, Nicholas S.; Lekea, Joanne K. (2007). "The Struggle between the Nicean Empire and the Bulgarian State (1254–1256): Towards a Revival of Byzantine Military Tactics under Theodore II Lascaris". In Rogers, Clifford J.; DeVries, Kelly; France, John (eds.). The Journal of Medieval Military History. Vol. V. ISBN 978-1-84383-339-0.
- Korobeinikov, D. A. (2017) [2008]. "Raiders and Neighbours: The Turks (1040–1304)". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c. 500–1492. Cambridge University Press. pp. 692–727. ISBN 978-0-521-83231-1.
- Lascaratos, John; Zis, Panaghiotis Vassilios (1998). "The Epilepsy of the Emperor Theodore II Lascaris (1254–1258)". Journal of Epilepsy. 11 (6). ISSN 0896-6974.
- ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6.
Further reading
- Angelov, Dimiter G. (2011–2012). "The "Moral Pieces" by Theodore II Laskaris". JSTOR 41933711.
- Angold, Michael (1975). A Byzantine Government in Exile: Government and Society Under the Laskarids of Nicaea (1204–1261). ISBN 0-19-821854-0.