Third Crusade
The Third Crusade | |
---|---|
Part of the | |
Result |
See outcome |
-
- Duchy of Swabia
- Duchy of Austria
- Duchy of Bohemia
- Landgraviate of Thuringia
- Margraviate of Brandenburg
- Margraviate of Montferrat
- Margraviate of Baden
- County of Holland
- County of Holstein
Levantine Crusader states:
Eastern Christian allies:
Sunni Muslim states:
Shia Muslim states:
Nizari Ismaili state (the Assassins)Eastern Christian opponents:
Crusaders:
- Richard the Lionheart
- Philip Augustus
- Frederick Barbarossa
- Prince Géza of Hungary
- Rodrigo Alvarez
- Margaritus of Brindisi
Levantine Crusader states:
- Guy of Lusignan
- Sibylla of Jerusalem #
- X
- Humphrey IV of Toron
- Balian of Ibelin
- Bohemond IV of Antioch
- Joscelin III of Edessa †
Military orders:
- Robert de Sablé
- Armengol de Aspa
- Garnier de Nablus
- Master Sibrand
Eastern Christian allies:
Sunni Muslim forces:
Eastern Christian opponents:
36,000–74,000 troops in total (estimate)
- 8,000–9,000 Angevin (English, Normans, Aquitanians, Welsh, Navarrese, etc.) troops with Richard I,[1] up to 17,000 or 50,000 according to some sources including non-combatants and sailors[2]
- 7,000+ French with Phillip II (inc. 650 knights and 1,300 squires)[1]
- 12,000–20,000 Germans with Frederick I (inc. 3–4,000 knights)[3][4]
- 2,000 Hungarians with Géza[5]
Two additional contingents also joined Frederick's army while travelling through Byzantine Empire. Numbered about 1000 men.
40,000 (Saladin's field army, 1189 – estimate)[8]
5,000–20,000 (Acre's garrison, 1189)[9][10]
Seljuks:
22,000+ (Qutb al-Din's field army only, 1190)[11][12]
The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt led by three European monarchs of
It was partially successful, recapturing the important cities of Acre and Jaffa, and reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but it failed to recapture Jerusalem, which was the major aim of the Crusade and its religious focus.
After the failure of the
After the Crusaders had driven the Ayyubid army from Acre, Philip—in company with Frederick's successor in command of the German crusaders, Leopold V, Duke of Austria—left the Holy Land in August 1191. Following a major victory by the Crusaders at the Battle of Arsuf, most of the coastline of the Levant was returned to Christian control. On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin finalized the Treaty of Jaffa, which recognised Muslim control over Jerusalem but allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and merchants to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. The military successes of the Third Crusade allowed the Christians to maintain considerable states in Cyprus and on the Syrian coast, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem on a narrow strip from Tyre to Jaffa.
The failure to re-capture Jerusalem inspired the subsequent Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204, but Europeans would only regain the city—and only briefly—in the Sixth Crusade in 1229.
Background
King
This final act of outrage by Raynald gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1187 he laid siege to the city of Tiberias. Raymond advised patience, but Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the Horns of Hattin outside of Tiberias. Saladin's forces fought the Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, and destroyed it in the ensuing Battle of Hattin (July 1187).
Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Raynald's having received the goblet from Guy rather than from Saladin meant that Saladin would not be forced to offer protection to the treacherous Raynald (custom prescribed that if one were personally offered a drink by the host, one's life was safe). When Raynald accepted the drink from Guy's hands, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'".[16] Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with Guy, sending him to Damascus and eventually allowing him to be ransomed by his people.
By the end of 1187 Saladin had taken
The new pope,
Barbarossa's crusade
The crusade of
Taking the cross
On 27 October 1187, just over three weeks after Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII sent letters to the German episcopate announcing his election and ordering them to win the German nobility over to a new crusade. Around 23 November, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the East urging him to come to their aid.[23]
By 11 November, Cardinal
Frederick held
After taking the cross, Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans" in accordance with the pope's instructions. He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at Regensburg on Saint George's Day (23 April 1189). To prevent the crusade from degenerating into an undisciplined mob, participants were required to have at least three marks, which was enough to be able support oneself for two years.[27]
Protecting the Jews
At Strasbourg, Frederick imposed a small tax on the
On 29 January 1188, a mob invaded the Jewish quarter in Mainz and many Jews fled to the imperial castle of Münzenberg. There were further incidents connected with the "Court of Christ" in March. According to Rabbi Moses ha-Cohen of Mainz,[d] there were minor incidents from the moment people began arriving for the Court of Christ on 9 March. This culminated in a mob gathering to invade the Jewish quarter on 26 March. It was dispersed by the imperial marshal Henry of Kalden. The rabbi then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi then rode through the streets together to emphasise that the Jews had imperial protection. Those Jews who had fled in January returned at the end of April.[28]
Diplomatic preparations
Shortly after the Strasbourg assembly, Frederick dispatched legates to negotiate the passage of his army through their lands: Archbishop Conrad of Mainz to Hungary, Godfrey of Wiesenbach to the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and an unnamed ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. He may also have sent representatives to Prince Leo II of Armenia.[29]
Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,[30] he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.[e] On 26 May 1188, he sent Count Henry II of Dietz to present an ultimatum to Saladin. The sultan was ordered to withdraw from the lands he had conquered, to return the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and to make satisfaction for those Christians who had been killed in his conquests, otherwise Frederick would abrogate their treaty.[32]
A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian, Seljuk and possibly Ayyubid envoys in Nuremberg. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of Stefan Nemanja, grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in Niš. An agreement was reached with the Byzantine envoy, John Kamateros, but it required Godfrey of Würzburg, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria to swear oaths for the crusaders' good behaviour. Bishop Hermann of Münster, Count Rupert III of Nassau, the future Henry III of Dietz and the imperial chamberlain Markward von Neuenburg with a large entourage[f] were sent ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.[32]
Mustering an army
At the Strasbourg assembly in December 1187, Bishop Godfrey of Würzburg urged Frederick to sail his army to the Holy Land rather than proceed overland. Frederick declined
Frederick was the first of the three kings to set out for the Holy Land. On 15 April 1189 in Haguenau,[h] Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim.[20] He arrived in Regensburg for the muster between 7 and 11 May.[36] The army had begun to gather on 1 May. Frederick was disappointed by the small force awaiting him, but he was dissuaded from calling off the enterprise when he learned that an international force had already advanced to the Hungarian border and was waiting for the imperial army.[25]
Frederick set out on 11 May 1189 with an army of 12,000–26,000 men,
Passage through the Balkans
Hungary
Frederick sailed from Regensburg on 11 May 1189, but most of the army had left earlier by land for the Hungarian border. On 16 May, Frederick ordered the village of Mauthausen burned because it had levied a toll on the army. In Vienna, Frederick expelled 500 men from the army for various infractions. He celebrated Pentecost on 28 May encamped across from Hungarian Pressburg. During his four days encamped before Pressburg, Frederick issued an ordinance for the good behaviour of the army, a "law against malefactors" in words of one chronicle. It apparently had a good effect.[43]
From Pressburg, the Hungarian envoys escorted the crusaders to Esztergom, where King Béla III of Hungary greeted them on 4 June. He provided boats, wine, bread and barley to the army. Frederick stayed in Esztergom for four days. The king of Hungary accompanied the army to the Byzantine border at Belgrade. There were incidents during the crossing of the Drava and Tisza rivers, but the Sava was crossed on 28 June without incident. In Belgrade, Frederick staged a tournament, held a court, conducted a census of the army and wrote to the Byzantine emperor Isaac II to inform him that he had entered Byzantine territory.[44]
Byzantine Empire
The army, still accompanied by Béla III, left Belgrade on 1 July, crossed the Morava and headed for Braničevo, which was the seat of the local Byzantine administration since Belgrade had been devastated in the Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185) with the Hungarians and Serbs. The head of the Byzantine administration was a doux (duke). At Braničevo, Béla III took leave and returned to Hungary. He gave the crusaders wagons and in return Frederick gave him his boats, since they would no longer be travelling up the Danube.[45]
The Burgundian contingent under Archbishop
On 25 July, Frederick was in
Frederick was welcomed by Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš with pomp on 27 July. Although the Serbian ruler asked the emperor to
Before leaving Niš, Frederick had Godfrey of Würzburg preach a sermon on the importance of discipline and maintaining the peace. He also reorganized the army, dividing it into four, because it would be entering territory more firmly under Byzantine control and less friendly. The vanguard of Swabians and Bavarians was put under the command of the Duke of Swabia assisted by
The crusaders left Niš on 30 July and arrived in Sofia on 13 August. They found the city practically abandoned. There was no Byzantine delegation to meet them and no market. The following day the crusaders left Sofia and the Lorrainers under Peter of Brixey finally caught up with the main army. The Gate of Trajan was held by a Byzantine force of 500 men. According to Diepold of Passau, the garrison retreated at the sight of Frederick's scouts, but the History of the Expedition says that it retreated only after being engaged by Frederick and a small group of knights. The army arrived at Pazardzhik on 20 August, finding an abundance of supplies.[49]
Conflict with Byzantium
Lectoforus met the army at Pazardzhik and informed Frederick of the disrespect shown to his envoys. On 24 August, the imperial army reached Philippopolis, the Byzantine forces in the area having fled at their approach. On 25 August, Lectoforus' report was confirmed: Hermann of Münster, Rupert of Nassau, Henry of Dietz and Markward von Neuenburg had been stripped of their possessions and openly mocked in presence of the Ayyubid ambassador. That same day, a Byzantine envoy, James of Pisa, arrived with a letter from Isaac, who referred to Frederick as "king of Germany", refusing him the imperial title, and accused him of plotting to put his son Frederick on the throne of Constantinople. He nonetheless offered to fulfill the agreement of December 1188 to ferry the crusaders across the Dardanelles if he received hostages (including Duke Frederick and six bishops) in addition to the envoys he had arrested. Frederick's response that he would consider the offer only after the envoys were released.[50]
According to the History of the Expedition, the receipt of Isaac's letter marked a break in crusader–Byzantine relations. Thereafter, the crusaders resorted to plunder and a scorched earth policy. On 26 August, the crusaders seized Philippopolis and its plentiful supplies. Frederick tried to communicate with the nearest Byzantine commander, the
Isaac ordered Kamytzes to shadow the crusaders and harass their foraging parties.[51] About 22 November 1189, with some 2,000 horsemen, Kamytzes set up an ambush for the crusaders' supply train near Philippopolis. The crusaders were informed of this from the Armenian inhabitants of the fortress of Prousenos, where Kamytzes had set up his main camp. They set out with 5,000 cavalry to attack the Byzantine camp. The two forces met by accident near Prousenos, and in the ensuing battle, Kamytzes was routed. The historian Niketas Choniates, who was an eyewitness, writes that the Byzantines fled as far as Ohrid, and that Kamytzes did not rejoin his men until three days after the battle.[52]
Turkish territory
After reaching Anatolia, Frederick was promised safe passage through the region by the Turkish Sultanate of Rum, but was faced instead with constant Turkish hit-and-run attacks on his army.
While crossing the
Maritime crusades
There were two main international maritime expeditions that travelled independently of the main armies from northern European waters between the spring and autumn of 1189. In addition, there were probably numerous unrecorded sailings on a smaller scale. Some may have sailed as early as 1188.[59]
The earlier of the two fleets departed England during Lent. It was already a large international fleet, including some 10,000 men and 50–60 ships from England,
The later of the two main fleets is the better recorded, since a short eyewitness account of its feats has survived, the De itinere navali. It was composed mainly of commoners.[64] It departed from Germany in April with eleven ships, although this was augmented after it arrived in Lisbon in early July by an English fleet that had set out in May.[65][66] It was recruited by King Sancho I of Portugal to assist in an attack on Silves. At the ensuing siege of Silves, the fleet had 38 vessels, including two from Brittany and Galicia.[67][68] The city capitulated after 45 days.[69] The second fleet arrived at Acre between April and June 1190.[70] According to the Narratio de primordiis ordinis theutonici, wood and sail from its cogs was used to construct a field hospital, which ultimately became the Teutonic Order.[71]
According to the
Richard and Philip's crusade
Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other in a meeting at Gisors in January 1188 and then both took the cross.[23] Both imposed a "Saladin tithe" on their citizens to finance the venture. (No such tithe had been levied in the Empire.[20]) In Britain, Baldwin of Forde, the archbishop of Canterbury, made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the Itinerary of Gerald of Wales. Baldwin would later accompany Richard on the Crusade and would die in the Holy Land.[73]
Passage
Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189. Richard succeeded him and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In the meantime, some of his subjects departed in multiple waves by sea.
Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, Richard's armada of 180 ships and 39
Siege of Acre
Saladin released
During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia,
Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city, which was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of the victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. In the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 7,000 French crusaders and 5,000 silver marks to pay them.[1]
On 18 June 1191, soon after Richard's arrival at Acre, he sent a messenger to Saladin requesting a face to face meeting. Saladin refused, saying that it was customary for kings to meet each other only after a peace treaty had been agreed, and thereafter "it is not seemly for them to make war upon each other". The two therefore never met, although they did exchange gifts and Richard had a number of meetings with
Battle of Arsuf
After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of
Advances on Jerusalem and negotiations
Following his victory at Arsuf, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, Al-Adil (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks), to meet with Richard. Negotiations, which included attempts to marry Richard's sister Joan or niece Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany to Al-Adil respectively, failed, and Richard marched to Ascalon, which had been recently demolished by Saladin.[89][90]
In November 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. Appallingly bad weather, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms, combined with fear that if the Crusader army besieged Jerusalem, it might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.[91]
Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all; Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two
During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of Darum on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting.[92] The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the Duke of Burgundy, however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.[93]
Saladin's attempt to recapture Jaffa
In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin lost control of his army due to their anger for the massacre at Acre. It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the Citadel until he had regained control of his army.
Richard had intended to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of little more than 2,000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from their ships and the
On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard providing that Jerusalem would remain under
to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria; it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192.Outcome
The Third Crusade did not achieve the goal of re-capturing
Aftermath
Neither side was entirely satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard's victories had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories and re-established a viable Frankish state in Palestine, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue the recapture of Jerusalem.[101] Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade flourished, however, throughout the Middle East and in port cities along the Mediterranean coastline.[102]
Saladin's scholar and biographer Baha al-Din recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders:
"I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top," meaning in his castle, "having announced, 'I shall stay put' and the Muslims will be ruined." These were his words and it came about as he said.[103]
Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, who suspected Richard of murdering Leopold's cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Leopold had also been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to England in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41 while suppressing a revolt in Limousin.
In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests.
Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to
Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the
Notes
- ^ Frederick's eldest son, Henry VI, who had already been elected king of the Romans, was to remain behind as regent. On 10 April 1189, Frederick wrote to Pope Clement III asking for a postponement of Henry's planned coronation as co-emperor because he did not want Henry to leave Germany during the regency.[24] Frederick formally appointed his son as regent at Regensburg on the eve of his departure.[25]
- ^ The duke of Bohemia died before the crusade began.[25]
- ^ Both Leopold V and Louis III sailed with their armies from Italy rather than march overland with Frederick.[25] Leopold was delayed by a border dispute with Hungary.[26]
- ^ Moses's account is known from a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law, Eleazar of Worms.[28]
- ^ There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.[31]
- ^ Sources give their entourage as 100, 300 or 500 knights.[33]
- ^ The emperor had been on the Second Crusade in 1147 and so was familiar with the overland route.[34]
- itinerant king, had to a home and may also have been where he was born.[35]
- ^ Christian estimates of the size of Frederick's army vary from 13,000 to 100,000, while Muslim sources wildly exaggerate its size from 200,000 to 300,000.[38]
References
References
- ^ ISBN 9780306815799.
- ^ Tyerman, p. 436
- ^ a b c Loud 2010, p. 19.
- ^ a b Bachrach & Bachrach 2017, p. 197.
- ^ Hunyadi, Zsolt (2011), A keresztes háborúk világa, p. 41.
- ^ McLynn, p. 182: breakdown includes 2,000 Outremer levies, 1,000 Templars and Hospitallers, hundreds of Genoese, Pisans, Danes, and Norwegians, and a small amount of Germans and Hungarians
- ^ Hosler 2018, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Hosler 2018, p. 54.
- ^ Hosler 2018, p. 34.
- ^ Pryor, John H. (2015). "A Medieval Siege of Troy: The Fight to the Death at Acre, 1189–1191 or The Tears of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn". In Halfond, Gregory I. (ed.). The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach. Farnham: Ashgate. p. 108.
- ^ Tyerman p. 422: "After desperate fighting involving the Emperor himself, the Turks outside the city were defeated [by the Imperial and Hungarian army], apparently against numerical odds."
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 104: The Seljuks lost 5,000+ men per their own body count estimates on May 7, 1190, soon before the Battle of Iconium.
- ^ Cartwright, Mark (2018-08-27). "Third Crusade". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
- ^ Hamilton 1978, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Barber 2012, p. 297.
- ^ Lyons, Malcolm Cameron and D. E. P. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 264.
- ISBN 9781137013927. Retrieved 6 August 2020.]
The city of Jerusalem was lost to Saladin in 1187 and was to be held by the Christians again only from 1229 to 1244.
[permanent dead link - ^ Hans E. Mayer, The Crusades. Oxford University Press, 1965 (trans. John Gillingham, 1972), p. 139.
- S2CID 216914511.
- ^ a b c d Freed 2016, p. 482.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 512.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b c d Freed 2016, p. 471.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 479.
- ^ a b c d Freed 2016, p. 487.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 488.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 472–473.
- ^ a b c Freed 2016, pp. 473–474.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, p. 480.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 355.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 626 n.44.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 480–481.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 481.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 51–53.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 486.
- ^ McLynn, p. 141: The book estimates that roughly 25,000 soldiers joined, but suggests the amount could have been somewhat to substantially more
- ^ a b c Freed 2016, pp. 487–488.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 45.
- ^ Tyerman p. 418
- ^ a b J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, p. 66
- ^ A. Konstam, Historical Atlas of The Crusades, 124
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 488–489.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 489–490.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 490–491.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 491–492.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 494.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 492–493.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 493–494.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 494–495.
- ^ Magoulias 1984, p. 222.
- ^ Magoulias 1984, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Nicolle, David (1997). Men-at-arms series 171 - Saladin and the saracens (PDF). Osprey publishing. pp. 9–12.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 104.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 109–111.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 181.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 97–111.
- ^ a b c David 1939, p. 666.
- ^ Wilson 2020, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Mol 2002, p. 94.
- ^ Wilson 2020, pp. 1–2.
- ^ David 1939, p. 664.
- ^ David 1939, pp. 603–604.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 193.
- ^ David 1939, pp. 611–616.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 196–197.
- ^ David 1939, p. 618.
- ^ Loud 2010, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Hosler 2018, p. 62.
- ^ Morton 2009, p. 10.
- ^ Lay 2009, p. 157.
- ^ Hunt, William (1885). "Baldwin (d. 1190)". In Dictionary of National Biography. 3. London. pp. 32–34.
- ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ L. Villegas-Aristizábal, "Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal", Studia Historica- Historia Medieval 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.
- ^ Wolff and Hazard, p. 57
- ^ Wolff and Hazard, p. 58
- ^ "Gesta Regis Ricard"
- ^ Wolff and Hazard, p. 61
- ^ Gesta Regis Ricardi p. 139
- ^ History of the Dukes p. 99
- JSTOR 44173212.
- ISBN 0-7007-1452-9.
- ISBN 0300094043.
- The University of Chicago, 1958, p. 267.
- ^ a b Khamisy, p. 214
- ^ 7,000 dead according to the Itinerarium trans. 2001 Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185
- ^ Oman, pp. 311–318
- ^ Nicolle, p. 83
- ^ Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900/Joan (1165–1199)
- ^ Gillingham, pp. 198–200.
- ^ Gillingham, p. 208
- ^ Gillingham, pp. 209–212
- ^ Oman, p. 319
- ^ Runciman 1954, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Marshall (1992), P. 21
- ISBN 978-1-108-06569-6.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-5561-2.
Thus, even after the failure of the Third Crusade Joachim did not discard the possibility of a future military expedition to Jerusalem.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-3116-0.
Despite its failures, the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. The Crusader Kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again.
- ^ "Third Crusade | Summary, Significance, Key Events, Location, & Leaders | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2023-09-15. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
Although the Third Crusade had failed in its main objective, to retake Jerusalem, it had been very successful in a myriad of other ways, not least in expunging most of the gains Saladin had made in the aftermath of his victory at Ḥaṭṭīn. Moreover, in regaining the coast, Richard gave the truncated kingdom of Jerusalem a lease on life for another century.
- ISBN 978-0-547-54905-7.
- ISBN 0-7910-7437-4.
- ISBN 0-7546-3381-0.
Bibliography
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- Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2017). Warfare in Medieval Europe c. 400 – c. 1453. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1138887664.
- Baha al-Din Ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin, trans. D.S. Richards (Aldershot, 2001).
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External links
- Third Crusade, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jonathan Riley-Smith, Carole Hillenbrand and Tariq Ali (In Our Time, Nov. 29, 2001)