Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle | |
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Born | Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland | 4 December 1795
Died | 5 February 1881 London, England | (aged 85)
Alma mater | University of Edinburgh |
Spouse | |
Notable ideas | See list
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Signature | |
Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian, and philosopher from the Scottish Lowlands. A leading writer of the Victorian era, he exerted a profound influence on 19th-century art, literature, and philosophy.
Born in
Carlyle occupied a central position in Victorian culture, being considered not only, in the words of Ralph Waldo Emerson, the "undoubted head of English letters",[2][3] but a "secular prophet". Posthumously, his reputation suffered as publications by his friend and disciple James Anthony Froude provoked controversy about Carlyle's personal life, particularly his marriage to Jane Welsh Carlyle. His reputation further declined in the 20th century, as the onsets of World War I and World War II brought forth accusations that he was a progenitor of both Prussianism and fascism. Since the 1950s, extensive scholarship in the field of Carlyle Studies has improved his standing, and he is now recognised as "one of the enduring monuments of our literature who, quite simply, cannot be spared."[4]
Biography
Early life
Thomas Carlyle was born on 4 December 1795 to James and Margaret Aitken Carlyle in the village of Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire in southwest Scotland. His parents were members of the
Carlyle's early education came from his mother, who taught him reading (despite being barely literate), and his father, who taught him arithmetic.[11] He first attended "Tom Donaldson's School" in Ecclefechan followed by Hoddam School (c. 1802–1806), which "then stood at the Kirk", located at the "Cross-roads" midway between Ecclefechan and Hoddam Castle.[12] By age 7, Carlyle showed enough proficiency in English that he was advised to "go into Latin", which he did with enthusiasm; however, the schoolmaster at Hoddam did not know Latin, so he was handed over to a minister that did, with whom he made a "rapid & sure way".[13] He then went to Annan Academy (c. 1806–1809), where he studied rudimentary Greek, read Latin and French fluently, and learned arithmetic "thoroughly well".[14] Carlyle was severely bullied by his fellow students at Annan, until he "revolted against them, and gave stroke for stroke"; he remembered the first two years there as among the most miserable of his life.[15]
Edinburgh, the ministry and teaching (1809–1818)
In November 1809 at nearly fourteen years of age, Carlyle walked one hundred miles from his home in order to attend the University of Edinburgh (c. 1809–1814), where he studied mathematics with John Leslie, science with John Playfair and moral philosophy with Thomas Brown.[17] He gravitated to mathematics and geometry and displayed great talent in those subjects, being credited with the invention of the Carlyle circle. In the University library, he read many important works of eighteenth-century and contemporary history, philosophy, and belles-lettres.[18] He began expressing religious scepticism around this time, asking his mother to her horror, "Did God Almighty come down and make wheelbarrows in a shop?"[19] In 1813 he completed his arts curriculum and enrolled in a theology course at Divinity Hall the following academic year. This was to be the preliminary of a ministerial career.[20]
Carlyle began teaching at Annan Academy in June 1814.
I read Gibbon, and then first clearly saw that Christianity was not true. Then came the most trying time of my life. I should either have gone mad or made an end of myself had I not fallen in with some very superior minds.[28]
Mineralogy, law and first publications (1818–1821)
In the summer of 1818, following an expedition with Irving through the moors of
In the same month, he wrote several articles for
In May, Carlyle was introduced to Jane Baillie Welsh by Irving in Haddington.[44] The two began a correspondence, and Carlyle sent books to her, encouraging her intellectual pursuits; she called him "my German Master".[45]
"Conversion": Leith Walk and Hoddam Hill (1821–1826)
During this time, Carlyle struggled with what he described as "the dismallest Lernean Hydra of problems, spiritual, temporal, eternal".[46] Spiritual doubt, lack of success in his endeavours, and dyspepsia were all damaging his physical and mental health, for which he found relief only in "sea-bathing". In early July 1821,[47] "during those 3 weeks of total sleeplessness, in which almost" his "one solace was that of a daily bathe on the sands between [Leith] and Portobello", an "incident" occurred in Leith Walk as he "went down" into the water.[48] This was the beginning of Carlyle's "Conversion", the process by which he "authentically took the Devil by the nose"[49] and flung "him behind me".[50] It gave him courage in his battle against the "Hydra"; to his brother John, he wrote, "What is there to fear, indeed?"[51]
Carlyle wrote several articles in July, August and September, and in November began a translation of
In May 1825, Carlyle moved into a cottage farmhouse in Hoddam Hill near Ecclefechan, which his father had leased for him. Carlyle lived with his brother Alexander, who, "with a cheap little man-servant", worked on the farm, his mother with her one maid-servant, and his two youngest sisters, Jean and Jenny.[55] He had constant contact with the rest of his family, most of whom lived close by at Mainhill, a farm owned by his father.[56] Jane made a successful visit in September 1825. Whilst there, Carlyle wrote German Romance (1827), a collection of previously untranslated German novellas by Johann Karl August Musäus, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, Ludwig Tieck, E. T. A. Hoffmann, and Jean Paul. In Hoddam Hill, Carlyle found respite from the "intolerable fret, noise and confusion" that he had experienced in Edinburgh, and observed what he described as "the finest and vastest prospect all round it I ever saw from any house", with "all Cumberland as in amphitheatre unmatchable".[55] Here, he completed his "Conversion" which began with the Leith Walk incident. He achieved "a grand and ever-joyful victory", in the "final chaining down, and trampling home, 'for good,' home into their caves forever, of all" his "Spiritual Dragons".[57] By May 1826, problems with the landlord and the agreement forced the family's relocation to Scotsbrig, a farm near Ecclefechan. Later in life, he remembered the year at Hoddam Hill as "perhaps the most triumphantly important of my life."[58]
Marriage, Comely Bank and Craigenputtock (1826–1834)
In October 1826, Thomas and Jane Welsh were married at the Welsh family farm in
In May 1828, the Carlyles moved to
Most notably, he wrote
Chelsea (1834–1845)
In June 1834, the Carlyles moved into
Carlyle eventually decided to publish Sartor serially in
In April 1836, with the intercession of Emerson, Sartor Resartus was first published in book form in Boston, soon selling out its initial run of five hundred copies.[76][77] Carlyle's three-volume history of the French Revolution was completed in January 1837 and sent to the press.[78] Contemporaneously, the essay "Memoirs of Mirabeau" was published,[79] as was "The Diamond Necklace" in January and February,[80] and "Parliamentary History of the French Revolution" in April.[81] In need of further financial security, Carlyle began a series of lectures on German literature in May, delivered extemporaneously in Willis' Rooms. The Spectator reported that the first lecture was given "to a very crowded and yet a select audience of both sexes." Carlyle recalled being "wasted and fretted to a thread, my tongue ... dry as charcoal: the people were there, I was obliged to stumble in, and start. Ach Gott!"[82] Despite his inexperience as a lecturer and deficiency "in the mere mechanism of oratory," reviews were positive and the series proved profitable for him.[83]
During Carlyle's lecture series,
In May 1840, Carlyle gave his fourth and final set of lectures, which were published in 1841 as
Carlyle had chosen
Journeys to Ireland and Germany (1846–1865)
Carlyle visited Ireland in 1846 with
Carlyle's travels in Ireland deeply affected his views on society, as did the
In 1852, Carlyle began research on Frederick the Great, whom he had expressed interest in writing a biography of as early as 1830.[104] He travelled to Germany that year, examining source documents and prior histories. Carlyle struggled through research and writing, telling von Ense it was "the poorest, most troublesome and arduous piece of work he has ever undertaken".[105] In 1856, the first two volumes of History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great were sent to the press and published in 1858. During this time, he wrote "The Opera" (1852), "Project of a National Exhibition of Scottish Portraits" (1854) at the request of David Laing, and "The Prinzenraub" (1855). In October 1855, he finished The Guises, a history of the House of Guise and its relation to Scottish history, which was first published in 1981.[106] Carlyle made a second expedition to Germany in 1858 to survey the topography of battlefields, which he documented in Journey to Germany, Autumn 1858, published posthumously. In May 1863, Carlyle wrote the short dialogue "Ilias (Americana) in Nuce" (American Iliad in a Nutshell) on the topic of the American Civil War. Upon publication in August, the "Ilias" drew scornful letters from David Atwood Wasson and Horace Howard Furness.[107] In the summer of 1864, Carlyle lived at 117 Marina (built by James Burton)[108] in St Leonards-on-Sea, in order to be nearer to his ailing wife who was in possession of caretakers there.[109]
Carlyle planned to write four volumes but had written six by the time Frederick was finished in 1865. Before its end, Carlyle had developed a tremor in his writing hand.[110] Upon its completion, it was received as a masterpiece. He earned a sobriquet, the "Sage of Chelsea",[111] and in the eyes of those that had rebuked his politics, it restored Carlyle to his position as a great man of letters.[112] Carlyle was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University in November 1865, succeeding William Ewart Gladstone and defeating Benjamin Disraeli by a vote of 657 to 310.[113]
Final years (1866–1881)
Carlyle travelled to Scotland to deliver his "Inaugural Address at Edinburgh" as Rector in April 1866. During his trip, he was accompanied by
Amidst controversy over governor
In the spring of 1874, Carlyle accepted the
On 2 February 1881, Carlyle fell into a coma. For a moment he awakened, and Mary heard him speak his final words: "So this is Death—well ..."
Works
Carlyle's corpus spans the genres of "criticism, biography, history, politics, poetry, and religion."
In
Carlyle postulated the
Raising the "
Character
James Anthony Froude recalled his first impression of Carlyle:
He was then fifty-four years old; tall (about five feet eleven), thin, but at that time upright, with no signs of the later stoop. His body was angular, his face beardless, such as it is represented in Woolner's medallion,[b] which is by far the best likeness of him in the days of his strength. His head was extremely long, with the chin thrust forward; his neck was thin; the mouth firmly closed, the under lip slightly projecting; the hair grizzled and thick and bushy. His eyes, which grew lighter with age, were then of a deep violet, with fire burning at the bottom of them, which flashed out at the least excitement. The face was altogether most striking, most impressive in every way.[144]
He was often recognised by his wideawake hat.[145]
Carlyle was a renowned conversationalist.
Charles Eliot Norton wrote that Carlyle's "essential nature was solitary in its strength, its sincerity, its tenderness, its nobility. He was nearer Dante than any other man."[151] Frederic Harrison similarly observed that "Carlyle walked about London like Dante in the streets of Verona, gnawing his own heart and dreaming dreams of Inferno. To both the passers-by might have said, See! there goes the man who has seen hell".[152] Higginson rather felt that Jean Paul's humorous character Siebenkäs "came nearer to the actual Carlyle than most of the grave portraitures yet executed", for, like Siebenkäs, Carlyle was "a satirical improvisatore".[153] Emerson saw Carlyle as "not mainly a scholar," but "a practical Scotchman, such as you would find in any saddler's or iron-dealer's shop, and then only accidentally and by a surprising addition, the admirable scholar and writer he is."[154]
Legacy
Influence
Carlyle's two most important followers were Emerson and Ruskin. In the 19th century, Emerson was often thought of as "the American Carlyle",[157] and he described himself in 1870 as "Lieutenant" to Carlyle's "General in Chief".[158] Ruskin publicly acknowledged that Carlyle was the author to whom he "owed more than to any other living writer",[159] and would frequently refer to him as his "master", writing after Carlyle's death that he was "throwing myself now into the mere fulfilment of Carlyle's work".[160]
British philosopher
Literature
"The most explosive impact in English literature during the nineteenth century is unquestionably Thomas Carlyle's", writes Lionel Stevenson. "From about 1840 onward, no author of prose or poetry was immune from his influence."[162] By 1960, he had become "the single most frequent topic of doctoral dissertations in the field of Victorian literature".[163] While preparing for a study of his own, German scholar Gerhart von Schulze-Gävernitz found himself overwhelmed by the amount of material already written about Carlyle—in 1894.[4]
Authors on whom Carlyle's influence was particularly strong include
Carlyle's German essays and translations as well as his own writings were pivotal to the development of the English Bildungsroman.[186] His concept of symbols influenced French literary Symbolism.[187] Victorian specialist Alice Chandler writes that the influence of his medievalism is "found throughout the literature of the Victorian age".[188]
Carlyle's influence was also felt in the negative sense. Algernon Charles Swinburne, whose comments on Carlyle throughout his writings range from high praise to scathing critique, once wrote to John Morley that Carlyle was "the illustrious enemy whom we all lament", reflecting a view of Carlyle as a totalizing figure to be rebelled against.[189]
Despite the broad Modernist reaction against the Victorians, the influence of Carlyle has been traced in the writings of T. S. Eliot,[190] James Joyce, Wyndham Lewis,[191] and D. H. Lawrence.[192]
The Oxford English Dictionary credits Carlyle with the first quotation in 547 separate entries, the 45th highest of all English authors.[193]
Social and political movements
Politically, Carlyle's influence spans across ideologies, from conservatism and communism to nationalism and socialism. He is acknowledged as an essential influence on
Scholars have been divided on whether Carlyle himself was conservative: Herbert Tingsten has said that he was,[211] while Simon Heffer says that he was not.[212]
Art
Carlyle's medievalist critique of industrial practice and political economy was an early utterance of what would become the spirit of both the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the Arts and Crafts movement, and several leading members recognised his importance.[213] John William Mackail, friend and official biographer of William Morris, wrote, that in the years of Morris and Edward Burne-Jones attendance at Oxford, Past and Present stood as "inspired and absolute truth."[214] Morris read a letter from Carlyle at the first public meeting of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings.[215] Fiona MacCarthy, a recent biographer, affirmed that Morris was "deeply and lastingly" indebted to Carlyle.[216] William Holman Hunt considered Carlyle to be a mentor of his. He used Carlyle as one of the models for the head of Christ in The Light of the World and showed great concern for Carlyle's portrayal in Ford Madox Brown's painting Work (1865).[217] Carlyle helped Thomas Woolner to find work early in his career and throughout, and the sculptor would become "a kind of surrogate son" to the Carlyles, referring to Carlyle as "the dear old philosopher".[218] Phoebe Anna Traquair depicted Carlyle, one of her favourite writers, in murals painted for the Royal Hospital for Sick Children and St Mary's Cathedral in Edinburgh.[219] According to Marylu Hill, the Roycrofters were "very influenced by Carlyle's words about work and the necessity of work", with his name appearing frequently in their writings, which are held at Villanova University.[220]
Thackeray wrote that Carlyle had done more than any other to give "
Controversies
Froude controversy
Carlyle had entrusted his papers to the care of James Anthony Froude after his death but was unclear about the permissions granted to him. Froude edited and published the Reminiscences in 1881, which sparked controversy due to Froude's failure to excise comments that might offend living persons, as was common practice at the time. The book damaged Carlyle's reputation, as did the following Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle and the four-volume biography of life as written by Froude. The image that Froude presented of Carlyle and his marriage was highly negative, prompting new editions of the Reminiscences and the letters by Charles Eliot Norton and Alexander Carlyle (husband of Carlyle's niece), who argued that, among other things, Froude had mishandled the materials entrusted to him in a deliberate and dishonest manner. This argument overshadowed Carlyle's work for decades. Owen Dudley Edwards remarked that by the turn of the century, "Carlyle was known more than read".[224] As Campbell describes:
The effect of Froude’s work in the years following Carlyle’s death was extraordinary. Almost overnight, it seemed, Carlyle plunged from his position as Sage of Chelsea and Grand Old Victorian to the object of puzzled dislike, or even of revulsion.[225]
Racism and antisemitism
Fielding writes that Carlyle "was often ready to play up to being a caricature of prejudice".
Henry Crabb Robinson heard Carlyle at dinner in 1837 speak approvingly of slavery. "It is a natural aristocracy, that of colour, and quite right that the stronger and better race should have dominion!"[236] The 1853 pamphlet "Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question" expressed concern for the excesses of the practice, considering "How to abolish the abuses of slavery, and save the precious thing in it."[237]
Prussianist and Nazi appropriation
From Goethe's recognition of Carlyle as "a moral force of great importance" in 1827 to the celebration of his centennial as though he were a national hero in 1895, Carlyle had long enjoyed a high reputation in Germany.
With the rise of
Some believed that Carlyle was German by blood. Echoing Paul Hensel's earlier claim in 1901 that Carlyle's Volkscharakter (Folk character) had preserved "the peculiarity of the Low German tribe", Egon Friedell, an anti-Nazi and Jewish Austrian, explained in 1935 that Carlyle's affinity with Germany stemmed from his being "a Scotsman of the lowlands, where the Celtic imprint is far more marginal than it is with the High Scottish and the Low German element is even stronger than it is in England."[243] Others regarded him, if not ethnically German, as a Geist von unserem Geist (Spirit from our Spirit), as Karl Richter wrote in 1937: "Carlyle's ethos is the ethos of the Nordic soul par excellence."[244]
In 1945, Joseph Goebbels frequently sought consolation from Carlyle's History of Frederick the Great. Goebbels read passages from the book to Hitler during his last days in the Führerbunker.[245]
While some Germans were eager to claim Carlyle for the Reich, others were more aware of incompatibilities. In 1936, Theodor Deimel argued that because of the "profound difference" between Carlyle's philosophical foundation of "a personally shaped religious idea" and the
Bibliography
By Carlyle
Major works
The standard edition of Carlyle's works is the Works in Thirty Volumes, also known as the Centenary Edition. The date given is when the work was "originally published."
- Chapman and Hall.
- Vol. I. Sartor Resartus: The Life and Opinions of Herr Teufelsdröckh in Three Books (1831)
- Vols. II–IV. The French Revolution: A History (1837)
- Vol. V. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841)
- Vols. VI–IX. Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: with Elucidations (1845)
- Vol. X. Past and Present (1843)
- Vol. XI. The Life of John Sterling (1851)
- Vols. XII–XIX. History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great (1858–1865)
- Vol. XX. Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850)
- Vols. XXI–XXII. German Romance: Translations from the German, with Biographical and Critical Notices (1827)
- Vols. XXIII–XXIV. Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and Travels, Translated from the German of Goethe (1824)
- Vol. XXV. The Life of Friedrich Schiller, Comprehending an Examination of His Works (1825)
- Vols. XXVI–XXX. Critical and Miscellaneous Essays
Marginalia
This is a list of selected books, pamphlets and broadsides uncollected in the Miscellanies through 1880 as well as posthumous first editions and unpublished manuscripts.[248]
- Ireland and Sir Robert Peel (1849)
- Legislation for Ireland (1849)
- Ireland and the British Chief Governor (1849)
- Froude, James Anthony, ed. (1881). Reminiscences. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
- Reminiscences of My Irish Journey in 1849 (1882). London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington.
- Last Words of Thomas Carlyle: On Trades-Unions, Promoterism and the Signs of the Times (1882). 67 Princes Street, Edinburgh: William Paterson.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1883). The Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1886). Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
- Thomas Carlyle's Counsels to a Literary Aspirant: A Hitherto Unpublished Letter of 1842 and What Came of Them (1886). Edinburgh: James Thin, South Bridge.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887). Reminiscences. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887). Correspondence Between Goethe and Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1888). Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
- Thomas Carlyle on the Repeal of the Union (1889). London: Field & Tuer, the Leadenhall Press.
- Newberry, Percy, ed. (1892). Rescued Essays of Thomas Carlyle. The Leadenhall Press.
- Last Words of Thomas Carlyle (1892). London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
- Karkaria, R. P., ed. (1892). Lectures on the History of Literature. London: Curwen, Kane & Co.
- Greene, J. Reay, ed. (1892). Lectures on the History of Literature. London: Ellis and Elvey.
- Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1898). Historical Sketches of Notable Persons and Events in the Reigns of James I and Charles I. London: Chapman and Hall Limited.
- Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1898). Two Note Books of Thomas Carlyle. New York: The Grolier Club.
- Copeland, Charles Townsend, ed. (1899). Letters of Thomas Carlyle to His Youngest Sister. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
- Jones, Samuel Arthur, ed. (1903). Collecteana. Canton, Pennsylvania: The Kirgate Press.
- Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1904). New Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London: The Bodley Head.
- Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1909). The Love Letters of Thomas Carlyle and Jane Welsh. 2 vols. London: The Bodley Head.
- Carlyle, Thomas (1922). "Notes of a Three-Days' Tour to the Netherlands". Cornhill Magazine. Vol. 53. pp. 626–640.
- Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1923). Letters of Thomas Carlyle to John Stuart Mill, John Sterling and Robert Browning. London: T. Fisher Unwin LTD.
- Brooks, Richard Albert Edward, ed. (1940). Journey to Germany, Autumn 1858. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Graham Jr., John, ed. (1950). Letters of Thomas Carlyle to William Graham. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Shine, Hill, ed. (1951). Carlyle's Unfinished History of German Literature. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
- Bliss, Trudy, ed. (1953). Letters to His Wife. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.
- King, Marjorie P. (1954). ""Illudo Chartis": An Initial Study in Carlyle's Mode of Composition". The Modern Language Review. 49 (2): 164–175. JSTOR 3718901.
- Baumgarten, Murray (1968). "Carlyle and "Spiritual Optics"". Victorian Studies. 11 (4): 503–522. JSTOR 3825228.
- Marrs, Edwin W. Jr., ed. (1968). The Letters of Thomas Carlyle to His Brother Alexander: with Related Family Letters. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
- Clubbe, John, ed. (1974). Two Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822303077.
- Fielding, K.J. (1979). "Unpublished Manuscripts – I: Carlyle Among the Cannibals". Carlyle Newsletter (1): 22–28. JSTOR 44945570.
- Henderson, Heather, ed. (1979). Wooden-Headed Publishers and Locust-Swarms of Authors. University of Edinburgh.
- Campbell, Ian, ed. (1980). Thomas and Jane: Selected Letters from the Edinburgh University Library Collection. Edinburgh.
- Fielding, K.J. (1980). "Unpublished Manuscripts – II: Carlyle's Scenario for "Cromwell"". Carlyle Newsletter (2): 6–13. JSTOR 44945576.
- Kaplan, Fred (1980). ""Phallus-Worship" (1848): Unpublished Manuscripts – III: A Response to the Revolution of 1848". Carlyle Newsletter (2): 19–23. JSTOR 44945578.
- Carlyle, Thomas (1981). "The Guises". Victorian Studies. 25 (1): 13–80. JSTOR 3827058.
- Trela, D. J. (1984). "Carlyle and the Beautiful People: An Unpublished Manuscript". Carlyle Newsletter (5): 36–41. JSTOR 44937838.
- Tarr, Rodger L.; McClelland, Fleming, eds. (1986). The Collected Poems of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. Greenwood, Florida: The Penkevill Publishing Company.
- Fielding, K. J. (1991). "Carlyle Writes Local History: "Dumfries-Shire Three Hundred Years Ago"". Carlyle Annual (12): 3–7. JSTOR 44945533.
- Fielding, K. J.; Neuberg, J. (1992). "New Notes for "The Letters": I. Carlyle's Sketch of Joseph Neuberg II. "Leave it Alone; Time Will Mend It"". Carlyle Annual (13): 3–15. JSTOR 44945549.
- de L. Ryals, Clyde (1995). "Thomas Carlyle on the Mormons: An Unpublished Essay". Carlyle Studies Annual (15): 49–54. JSTOR 44946088.
- Campbell, Ian (1 January 1996). "Peter Lithgow: New Fiction by Thomas Carlyle". Studies in Scottish Literature. 29 (1). ISSN 0039-3770.
- ISBN 9-781739-596002
Scholarly editions
- Altick, Richard D., ed. (2000). Past and Present (Reprint ed.). New York: New York University Press.
- Cate, George Allen, ed. (1982). The Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
- Fielding, Kenneth J.; Campbell, Ian, eds. (2009). Reminiscences (Reprint ed.). Glasgow: Kennedy & Boyd.
- Goldberg, M. K.; Seigel, J. P., eds. (1983). Carlyle's Latter-Day Pamphlets. Canadian Federation for the Humanities.
- McSweenery, Kerry; Sabor, Peter, eds. (2008). Sartor Resartus. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Sanders, Charles Richard; Fielding, Kenneth J.; Ryals, Clyde de L.; Campbell, Ian; Christianson, Aileen; Clubbe, John; McIntosh, Sheila; Smith, Hilary; Sorensen, David, eds. (1970–2022). The Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.
- Kinser, Brent E. (ed.). "The Carlyle Letters Online: A Victorian Cultural Reference".
- Slater, Joseph, ed. (1964). The Correspondence of Emerson and Carlyle. New York and London: Columbia University Press.
- Sorensen, David R.; Kinser, Brent E.; Engel, Mark, eds. (2019). The French Revolution. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- The Norman and Charlotte Strouse Edition of the Writings of Thomas Carlyle. 6 vols. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1993–2022.
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Memoirs, etc.
- Allingham, William (1907). William Allingham's Diary 1847–1889 (Paperback ed.). London: Centaur Press (published 2000).
- Baker, William (1 January 1976). "Herbert Spencer's unpublished reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle: The "Perfect owl of minerva for knowledge" on a "Poet without music"". Neophilologus. 60 (1): 145–152. S2CID 161087774.
- Blunt, Reginald (1895). The Carlyles' Chelsea Home, being some account of No. 5, Cheyne Row. York Street, George Bell and Sons.
- Boyle, Mary (1902). "Carlyle". In Boyle, Sir Courtenay (ed.). Her Book. London: John Murray. pp. 267–268.
- Conway, Moncure D. (1881). Thomas Carlyle. London: Chatto & Windus.
- Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan (1892). Conversations with Carlyle. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Espinasse, Francis (1893). Literary Recollections and Sketches. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
- Fox, Caroline (1883). Pym, Horace N. (ed.). Memories of Old Friends: Being Extracts from the Journals and Letters of Caroline Fox of Penjerrick, Cornwall, from 1835 to 1871. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
- Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (1909). "Carlyle's Laugh". Carlyle's Laugh, and Other Surprises. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 1–12.
- Knighton, William (1881). "Conversations with Carlyle". Contemporary Review (39): 904–920.
- Larkin, Henry (1881). "Carlyle, and Mrs. Carlyle: A Ten-Years' Reminiscence". The British Quarterly Review (74): 84–64.
- Masson, David (1885). Carlyle Personally and in His Writings.
- Norton, Charles Eliot (1886). "Recollections of Carlyle". The New Princeton Review. 2 (4): 1–19.
- Tyndall, John (1890). "Personal Recollections of Thomas Carlyle". New Fragments. New York: Appleton (published 1892). pp. 347–391.
- Symington, Andrew J. (1886). Some Personal Reminiscences of Carlyle.
Biographies
- Boyle, Andrew, ed. (1913–1914). "Carlyle, Thomas". The Everyman Encyclopædia. Everyman's library Reference. Vol. Three. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, LTD. pp. 325–327.
- Campbell, Ian (1974). Thomas Carlyle (2nd Revised ed.). Glasgow, Scotland: Kennedy & Boyd (published 24 June 2011).
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- Froude, James Anthony (1882–1884). Thomas Carlyle. 4 vols. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
- Garnett, Richard (1887). Life of Thomas Carlyle.
- Heffer, Simon (1996). Moral Desperado: A Life of Thomas Carlyle. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
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- Neff, Emery (1932). Carlyle. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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- Perry, Bliss (1915). Thomas Carlyle: How to Know Him. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
- Shepherd, Richard Herne (1881). Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas Carlyle.
- Shine, Hill (1953). Carlyle's Early Reading, to 1834. Occasional Contributions. Vol. 57. Lexington: University of Kentucky Libraries.
- Sloan, J. M. (1904). Hollern, Mary (ed.). The Carlyle Country (2nd ed.). Sheffield, England: The Grimsay Press (published 20 May 2010).
- Stephen, Leslie (1887). "Carlyle, Thomas". In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 9. Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 111–127.
- Symons, Julian (1952). Thomas Carlyle: The Life and Ideas of a Prophet. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Wilson, David Alec (1923–1934). Carlyle. 6 vols. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., LTD.
- Wylie, William Howie (1881). Thomas Carlyle, the Man and His Books. London.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Secondary sources
- Barfoot, C. C., ed. (1999). Victorian Keats and Romantic Carlyle: The Fusions and Confusions of Literary Periods. Amsterdam & Atlanta, GA: Rodopi. ISBN 9042005785.
- Birrell, Augustine (1885). "Carlyle". Obiter Dicta. New York: Chas. Scribner's Sons.
- Bishirjian, Richard J. (1976). "Carlyle's Political Religion". S2CID 153527096.
- Campell, Ian (1987). "Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881)". In Thesing, William B. (ed.). Victorian Prose Writers Before 1867. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Vol. 55. Detroit: Gale. pp. 46–64. ISBN 978-0810317338.
- Chandler, Alice (1970). A Dream of Order: The Medieval Ideal in Nineteenth-Century English Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803207042.
- Clubbe, John, ed. (1976). Carlyle and His Contemporaries: Essays in Honor of Charles Richard Sanders. Durham, North Carolina: ISBN 978-0822303404.
- Cole, J. A. (1964). Lord Haw-Haw: The Full Story of William Joyce. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 9780571148608.
- Cumming, Mark, ed. (2004). The Carlyle Encyclopedia. Madison and Teaneck, NJ: ISBN 978-0838637920.
- Drescher, Horst W., ed. (1983). Thomas Carlyle 1981: Papers Given at the International Thomas Carlyle Centenary Symposium. Scottish Studies. Frankfurt am Main: ISBN 978-3820473278.
- Dyer, Isaac Watson (1928). A Bibliography of Thomas Carlyle's Writings and Ana. New York: Burt Franklin (published 1968).
- Fielding, K. J.; Tarr, Rodger L., eds. (1976). Carlyle Past and Present: A Collection of New Essays. Vision Press. ISBN 978-0854783731.
- Harrold, Charles Frederick (1934). Carlyle and German Thought: 1819–1834. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Jackson, Holbrook (1948). Dreamers of Dreams: The Rise and Fall of 19th Century Idealism. New York: Farrar, Straus and Company.
- Jessop, Ralph (1997). Carlyle and Scottish Thought. Macmillan Press.
- Joyce, William (1940). Twilight Over England. Berlin: Internationaler Verlag.
- Kerry, Paul E.; Hill, Marylu, eds. (2010). Thomas Carlyle Resartus: Reappraising Carlyle's Contribution to the Philosophy of History, Political Theory, and Cultural Criticism. Madison and Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0838642238.
- Kerry, Paul E.; Pionke, Albert D.; Dent, Megan, eds. (2018). Thomas Carlyle and the Idea of Influence. Madison and Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-1683930662.
- LaValley, Albert J. (1968). Carlyle and the Idea of the Modern: Studies in Carlyle's Prophetic Literature and Its Relation to Blake, Nietzsche, Marx, and Others. New Haven and London: ISBN 978-0300006766.
- Lea, F. A. (2017) [1943]. Carlyle: Prophet of To-day. Routledge Library Editions: Social and Political Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Vol. 2. Routledge. ISBN 978-1315563640.
- McCollum, Jonathon C. (20 July 2007). Thomas Carlyle, Fascism, and Frederick: From Victorian Prophet to Fascist Ideologue (MA thesis). Brigham Young University. hdl:1877/etd2044.
- Mendilow, Jonathan (1983). "The Neglected (I): Carlyle's Political Philosophy: Towards a Theory of Catch-All Extremism". S2CID 145617742.
- Mendilow, Jonathan (1984). "Carlyle, Marx & the ILP: Alternative Routes to Socialism". Polity. 17 (2). The University of Chicago Press: 225–247. S2CID 147550498.
- Moldbug, Mencius (5 April 2016). Moldbug on Carlyle. Unqualified Reservations. ASIN B01DVJCCBQ.
- Moore, Carlisle (1957). "Thomas Carlyle". In Houtchens, Carolyn Washburn; Houtchens, Lawrence Huston (eds.). The English Romantic Poets & Essayists: A Review of Research and Criticism (Revised ed.). New York: New York University Press (published 1966).
- Norman, Edward (1987). The Victorian Christian Socialists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Pierson, Stanley (1979). British Socialists: The Journey from Fantasy to Politics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674082823.
- Plotz, John (2000). "Crowd Power: Chartism, Carlyle, and the Victorian Public Sphere". JSTOR 2902894.
- Rosenberg, John D. (1985). Carlyle and the Burden of History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
- Rosenberg, Philip (1974). The Seventh Hero: Thomas Carlyle and the Theory of Radical Activism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
- Sanders, Charles Richard (1977). Carlyle's Friendships and Other Studies. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822303893.
- Seigel, Jules Paul, ed. (1971). Thomas Carlyle: The Critical Heritage. The Critical Heritage Series. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0710070906.
- Shepherd, Richard Herne (1881). The Bibliography of Carlyle. London: Elliot Stock.
- Shine, Hill (1971). Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians; the concept of historical periodicity. New York: Octagon Books. ISBN 978-0374973605.
- Sorensen, David R. (1 March 2009). ""Natural Supernaturalism": Carlyle's Redemption of the Past in The French Revolution". Revue LISA/LISA e-journal. Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-speaking World (Vol. VII – n°3): 442–451. )
- Sorensen, David R. (2012). ""The Great Pioneer of National Socialist Philosophy"?: Carlyle and Twentieth-Century Totalitarianism". Studies in the Literary Imagination. 45 (1): 43–66. S2CID 153751576.
- Sorensen, David; Kinser, Brent E. (11 January 2018). "Thomas Carlyle". Oxford Bibliographies. .
- Tarr, Rodger L. (1976). Thomas Carlyle: A Bibliography of English Language Criticism, 1824–1974. Charlottesville: ISBN 978-0813906959.
- Tarr, Rodger L. (1989). Thomas Carlyle: A Descriptive Bibliography. Pittsburgh Series in Bibliography. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0822936077.
- Tennyson, G. B. (1965). Sartor Called Resartus: The Genesis, Structure, and Style of Thomas Carlyle's First Major Work. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. LCCN 65017162.
- Tennyson, G. B. (1973). "Thomas Carlyle". In DeLaura, David J. (ed.). Victorian Prose: A Guide to Research. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. pp. 33–104. ISBN 978-0873522502.
- Trela, D. J.; Tarr, Rodger L., eds. (1997). The Critical Response to Thomas Carlyle's Major Works. Critical Responses in Arts and Letters. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313291074.
- Vanden Bossche, Chris R. (1991). Carlyle and the Search for Authority. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
- Vida, Elizabeth M. (1993). Romantic Affinities: German Authors and Carlyle; A Study in the History of Ideas. Heritage. University of Toronto Press. JSTOR 10.3138/j.ctvfrxchd.
- Vijn, J. P. (2017). Carlyle, Jung, and Modern Man: Jungian Concepts as Key to Carlyle's Mind (PDF). H. Brinkman-Vijn. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2022.
- Wellek, René (1965). Confrontations: studies in the intellectual and literary relations between Germany, England, and the United States during the nineteenth century. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
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Explanatory notes
- ^ For the letter, written by John Morley and David Masson, and list of signatories, see New Letters of Thomas Carlyle, edited by Alexander Carlyle, vol. II, pp. 323–324.
- ^ Pictured.
- ^ Houndsditch is a mercantile district in the East End of London which was associated with Jewish merchants of used clothing.
- ^ In his journal, Carlyle wrote that "right is the eternal symbol of might", and described himself thus: "never [was there] a son of Adam more contemptuous of might except where it rests on the above origin."[239]
References
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The procession starts with the author and historian Thomas Carlyle, who played a significant role in the establishment of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, and the National Portrait Gallery in London.
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Mr. Carlyle ... has yet for many years been accepted by competent critics of all shades of opinion as the undoubted head of English letters.
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- ^ "Among these humble, stern, earnest religionists of the Burgher phase of Dissent Thomas Carlyle was born." – Sloan, John MacGavin (1904). The Carlyle Country, with a Study of Carlyle's Life. London: Chapman & Hall, p. 40.
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- ^ CLO, JBW TO MRS. GEORGE WELSH; 1 October 1826.
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- ^ CLO, TC TO JAMES FRASER; 7 March 1835.
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- ^ Seigel, Jules. “Carlyle and Peel: The Prophet’s Search for a Heroic Politician and an Unpublished Fragment.” Victorian Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, 1983, pp. 181–195, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3827005. Accessed 13 April 2022.
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- ^ Nichol 1904, Chapter VII. Decadence [1866–1881].
- ^ Trella, D. J. (1992). "Carlyle's 'Shooting Niagara': The Writing and Revising of an Article and Pamphlet", Victorian Periodicals Review 25 (1), pp. 30–34.
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- ^ Marrs 1968, p. 790.
- ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter C" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
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- ^ Sutherland, Liz (2005). "'As others dress to live, he lives to dress.'" (PDF). Carlyle Society Occasional Papers (18). Edinburgh University Press: 30.
- ^ Darwin, Charles (1839). Burkhardt, Frederick; Smith, Sydney (eds.). The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. Vol. 2 (published 1985). p. 155.
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- ^ Harrison, Frederic. The Choice of Books, and Other Literary Pieces. London: Macmillan, 1912. pp. 180–81.
- ^ Higginson 1909, p. 12.
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- ^ George Eliot, "Thomas Carlyle", George Eliot Archive, accessed March 12, 2022, https://georgeeliotarchive.org/items/show/96.
- ^ Cumming 2004, p. 145.
- ^ Jackson 1948, p. 14.
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- ^ Cook, E. T.; Wedderburn, Alexander, eds. (1909). "Carlyle's Work". The Letters of John Ruskin (1870–1899). The Works of John Ruskin. Vol. XXXVII. London: George Allen. p. 345.
- ^ Muirhead, John H. (1931). The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 127.
- ^ Clubbe 1976, p. 257.
- ^ Fielding & Tarr 1976, p. 50.
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- ^ Cumming 2004, p. 42.
- ^ Cumming 2004, p. 93.
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- ^ Cumming 2004, p. 209.
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- ^ Cumming 2004, p. 318, "Meredith, George".
- ^ a b c McCollum 2007, p. 46.
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Carlyle's active anti-Semitism was based primarily upon his identification of Jews with materialism and with an anachronistic religious structure. He was repelled by those "old clothes" merchants ... by "East End" orthodoxy, and by "West End" Jewish wealth, merchants clothed in new money who seemed to epitomise the intense material corruption of Western society.
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External links
- Carlyle Studies Annual on JSTOR
- The Norman and Charlotte Strouse Edition of the Writings of Thomas Carlyle
- The Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle
- The Carlyle Society of Edinburgh
- The Ecclefechan Carlyle Society
- Thomas & Jane Carlyle's Craigenputtock the official site
- Portraits of Thomas Carlyle at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Electronic editions
- Works by Thomas Carlyle in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
- Works by Thomas Carlyle at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Thomas Carlyle at Internet Archive
- Works by Thomas Carlyle at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Poems by Thomas Carlyle at PoetryFoundation.org
- The Carlyle Letters Online
- The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily, Thomas Carlyle's translation (1832) from the German of Goethe's Märchen or Das Märchen
Archival material
- "Archival material relating to Thomas Carlyle". UK National Archives.
- A guide to the Thomas Carlyle Collection at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
- Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle Photographs at the Mortimer Rare Book Collection, Smith College Special Collections