Thomas Nagel
Thomas Nagel | |
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School or tradition | Analytic philosophy |
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Thomas Nagel (
Nagel is known for his critique of
Life and career
Nagel was born on July 4, 1937, in
Nagel received a
Nagel taught at the
Nagel is a fellow of the
Philosophical work
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Overview
Nagel began to publish philosophy at age 22; his career now spans over 60 years of publication. He thinks that each person, owing to their capacity to reason, instinctively seeks a unified world view, but if this aspiration leads one to believe that there is only one way to understand our intellectual commitments, whether about the external world, knowledge, or what our practical and moral reasons ought to be, one errs. For contingent, limited and finite creatures, no such unified world view is possible, because ways of understanding are not always better when they are more objective.
Like the British philosopher Bernard Williams, Nagel believes that the rise of modern science has permanently changed how people think of the world and our place in it. A modern scientific understanding is one way of thinking about the world and our place in it that is more objective than the commonsense view it replaces. It is more objective because it is less dependent on our peculiarities as the kinds of thinkers that people are. Our modern scientific understanding involves the mathematicized understanding of the world represented by modern physics. Understanding this bleached-out view of the world draws on our capacities as purely rational thinkers and fails to account for the specific nature of our perceptual sensibility. Nagel repeatedly returns to the distinction between "primary" and "secondary" qualities—that is, between primary qualities of objects like mass and shape, which are mathematically and structurally describable independent of our sensory apparatuses, and secondary qualities like taste and color, which depend on our sensory apparatuses.
Despite what may seem like skepticism about the objective claims of science, Nagel does not dispute that science describes the world that exists independently of us. His contention, rather, is that a given way of understanding a subject matter should not be regarded as better simply for being more objective. He argues that scientific understanding's attempt at an objective viewpoint—a "view from nowhere"—necessarily leaves out something essential when applied to the mind, which inherently has a subjective point of view. As such, objective science is fundamentally unable to help people fully understand themselves. In "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" and elsewhere, he writes that science cannot describe what it is like to be a thinker who conceives of the world from a particular subjective perspective.
Nagel argues that some
Nagel thinks that philosophers, over-impressed by the paradigm of the kind of objective understanding represented by modern science, tend to produce theories of the mind that are falsely objectifying in precisely this kind of way. They are right to be impressed—modern science really is objective—but wrong to take modern science to be the only paradigm of objectivity. The kind of understanding that science represents does not apply to everything people would like to understand.
As a philosophical
Nagel's rationalism and tendency to present human nature as composite, structured around our capacity to reason, explains why he thinks that
Philosophy of mind
What is it like to be a something
Nagel is probably most widely known in
In "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?", Nagel argues that consciousness has essential to it a subjective character, a what it is like aspect. He writes, "an organism has conscious mental states if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism—something it is like for the organism."
Part of the puzzlement here is because of the limitations of imagination: influenced by his Princeton colleague Saul Kripke, Nagel believes that any type identity statement that identifies a physical state type with a mental state type would be, if true, necessarily true. But Kripke argues that one can easily imagine a situation where, for example, one's C-fibres are stimulated but one is not in pain and so refute any such psychophysical identity from the armchair. (A parallel argument does not hold for genuine theoretical identities.) This argument that there will always be an explanatory gap between an identification of a state in mental and physical terms is compounded, Nagel argues, by the fact that imagination operates in two distinct ways. When asked to imagine sensorily, one imagines C-fibres being stimulated; if asked to imagine sympathetically, one puts oneself in a conscious state resembling pain. These two ways of imagining the two terms of the identity statement are so different that there will always seem to be an explanatory gap, whether or not this is the case. (Some philosophers of mind[who?] have taken these arguments as helpful for physicalism on the grounds that it exposes a limitation that makes the existence of an explanatory gap seem compelling, while others[who?] have argued that this makes the case for physicalism even more impossible as it cannot be defended even in principle.)
Nagel is not a physicalist because he does not believe that an internal understanding of mental concepts shows them to have the kind of hidden essence that underpins a scientific identity in, say, chemistry. But his skepticism is about current physics: he envisages in his most recent work that people may be close to a scientific breakthrough in identifying an underlying essence that is neither physical (as people currently think of the physical), nor functional, nor mental, but such that it necessitates all three of these ways in which the mind "appears" to us. The difference between the kind of explanation he rejects and the kind he accepts depends on his understanding of transparency: from his earliest work to his most recent Nagel has always insisted that a prior context is required to make identity statements plausible, intelligible and transparent.
Natural selection and consciousness
In his 2012 book Mind and Cosmos, Nagel argues against a
Nagel has argued that ID should not be rejected as non-scientific, for instance writing in 2008 that "ID is very different from creation science," and that the debate about ID "is clearly a scientific disagreement, not a disagreement between science and something else."[18] In 2009, he recommended Signature in the Cell by the philosopher and ID proponent Stephen C. Meyer in The Times Literary Supplement as one of his "Best Books of the Year."[19] Nagel does not accept Meyer's conclusions but endorsed Meyer's approach, and argued in Mind and Cosmos that Meyer and other ID proponents, David Berlinski and Michael Behe, "do not deserve the scorn with which they are commonly met."[17]: 10
Ethics
Nagel's Rawlsian approach
Nagel has been highly influential in the related fields of moral and
The most striking claim of the book is that there is a very close parallel between prudential reasoning in one's own interests and moral reasons to act to further the interests of another person. When one reasons prudentially, for example about the future reasons that one will have, one allows the reason in the future to justify one's current action without reference to the strength of one's current desires. If a hurricane were to destroy someone's car next year, at that point they will want their insurance company to pay them to replace it: that future reason gives them a reason to take out insurance now. The strength of the reason ought not to be hostage to the strength of one's current desires. The denial of this view of prudence, Nagel argues, means that one does not really believe that one is one and the same person through time. One is dissolving oneself into distinct person-stages.[21]
Altruistic action
This is the basis of his analogy between prudential actions and moral actions: in cases of
Subjective and objective reasons
Nagel's later work on ethics ceases to place as much weight on the distinction between a person's personal or "
Objective reasons
The different classes of reasons and values (i.e., agent-relative and agent-neutral) emphasized in Nagel's later work are situated within a Sidgwickian model in which one's moral commitments are thought of objectively, such that one's personal reasons and values are simply incomplete parts of an impersonal whole. The structure of Nagel's later ethical view is that all reasons must be brought into relation to this objective view of oneself. Reasons and values that withstand detached critical scrutiny are objective, but more subjective reasons and values can nevertheless be objectively tolerated. However, the most striking part of the earlier argument and of Sidgwick's view is preserved: agent-neutral reasons are literally reasons for anyone, so all objectifiable reasons become individually possessed no matter whose they are. Thinking reflectively about ethics from this standpoint, one must take every other agent's standpoint on value as seriously as one's own, since one's own perspective is just a subjective take on an inter-subjective whole; one's personal set of reasons is thus swamped by the objective reasons of all others.
World agent views
This is similar to "world agent"
Political philosophy
The extent to which one can lead a good life as an individual while respecting the demands of others leads inevitably to political philosophy. In the Locke lectures published as the book Equality and Partiality, Nagel exposes John Rawls's theory of justice to detailed scrutiny. Once again, Nagel places such weight on the objective point of view and its requirements that he finds Rawls's view of liberal equality not demanding enough. Rawls's aim to redress, not remove, the inequalities that arise from class and talent seems to Nagel to lead to a view that does not sufficiently respect the needs of others. He recommends a gradual move to much more demanding conceptions of equality, motivated by the special nature of political responsibility. Normally, people draw a distinction between what people do and what people fail to bring about, but this thesis, true of individuals, does not apply to the state, which is a collective agent. A Rawlsian state permits intolerable inequalities and people need to develop a more ambitious view of equality to do justice to the demands of the objective recognition of the reasons of others. For Nagel, honoring the objective point of view demands nothing less.
Atheism
In Mind and Cosmos, Nagel writes that he is an
Experience itself as a good
Nagel has said, "There are elements which, if added to one's experience, make life better; there are other elements which if added to one's experience, make life worse. But what remains when these are set aside is not merely neutral: it is emphatically positive. ... The additional positive weight is supplied by experience itself, rather than by any of its consequences."[23][24]
Personal life
Nagel married Doris Blum in 1954, divorcing in 1973. In 1979, he married Anne Hollander, who died in 2014.[6]
Awards
Nagel received the 1996
Selected publications
Books
- Nagel, Thomas (1970). The possibility of altruism. Princeton, N.J: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780691020020. (Reprinted in 1978, Princeton University Press.)
- Nagel, Thomas; ISBN 9780195017595.
- Nagel, Thomas (1979). Mortal questions. London: Canto. ISBN 9780521406765.
- Nagel, Thomas (1986). The view from nowhere. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195056440.
- Nagel, Thomas (1987). What does it all mean?: a very short introduction to philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195174373.
- Nagel, Thomas (1991). Equality and partiality. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195098396.
- Nagel, Thomas (1997). The last word. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195149838.[25]
- Nagel, Thomas (1999). Other minds: critical essays, 1969–1994. New York Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195132465.
- Nagel, Thomas; Murphy, Liam (2002). The myth of ownership : taxes and justice. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195176568.
- Nagel, Thomas (2002). Concealment and exposure: and other essays. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195152937.
- Nagel, Thomas (2010). Secular philosophy and the religious temperament: essays 2002–2008. Oxford New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195394115.
- Nagel, Thomas (2012). ISBN 9780199919758
Articles
- 1959, "Hobbes's Concept of Obligation", Philosophical Review, pp. 68–83.
- 1959, "Dreaming", Analysis, pp. 112–6.
- 1965, "Physicalism", Philosophical Review, pp. 339–56.
- 1969, "Sexual Perversion", Journal of Philosophy, pp. 5–17 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1969, "The Boundaries of Inner Space", Journal of Philosophy, pp. 452–8.
- 1970, "Death", Nous, pp. 73–80 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1970, "Armstrong on the Mind", Philosophical Review, pp. 394–403 (a discussion review of A Materialist Theory of the Mind by D. M. Armstrong).
- 1971, "Brain Bisection and the Unity of Consciousness", Synthese, pp. 396–413 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1971, "The Absurd", Journal of Philosophy, pp. 716–27 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1972, "War and Massacre", Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 1, pp. 123–44 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1973, "Rawls on Justice", Philosophical Review, pp. 220–34 (a discussion review of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls).
- 1973, "Equal Treatment and Compensatory Discrimination", Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 2, pp. 348–62.
- 1974, "What Is it Like to Be a Bat?", Philosophical Review, pp. 435–50 (repr. in Mortal Questions). Online text
- 1976, "Moral Luck", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary vol. 50, pp. 137–55 (repr. in Mortal Questions).
- 1979, "The Meaning of Equality", Washington University Law Quarterly, pp. 25–31.
- 1981, "Tactical Nuclear Weapons and the Ethics of Conflict", Parameters: Journal of the U.S. Army War College, pp. 327–8.
- 1983, "The Objective Self", in Carl Ginet and Sydney Shoemaker (eds.), Knowledge and Mind, Oxford University Press, pp. 211–232.
- 1987, "Moral Conflict and Political Legitimacy", Philosophy & Public Affairs, pp. 215–240.
- 1994, "Consciousness and Objective Reality", in R. Warner and T. Szubka (eds.), The Mind-Body Problem, Blackwell.
- 1995, "Personal Rights and Public Space", Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 83–107.
- 1997, "Assisted Suicide: The Philosophers' Brief" (with R. Dworkin, R. Nozick, J. Rawls, T. Scanlon, and J. J. Thomson), New York Review of Books, March 27, 1997.
- 1998, "Reductionism and Antireductionism", in The Limits of Reductionism in Biology, Novartis Symposium 213, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 3–10.
- 1998, "Concealment and Exposure", Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 3–30. Online text
- 1998, "Conceiving the Impossible and the Mind-Body Problem", Philosophy, vol. 73, no. 285, pp. 337–352. Online PDF Archived 2006-09-01 at the Wayback Machine
- 2000, "The Psychophysical Nexus", in Paul Boghossian and Christopher Peacocke (eds.) New Essays on the A Priori, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 432–471. Online PDF Archived 2006-09-01 at the Wayback Machine
- 2003, "Rawls and Liberalism", in Samuel Freeman (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Rawls, Cambridge University Press, pp. 62–85.
- 2003, "John Rawls and Affirmative Action", The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 39, pp. 82–4.
- 2008, "Public Education and Intelligent Design", Philosophy and Public Affairs
- 2009, "The I in Me", a review article of Selves: An Essay in Revisionary Metaphysics by Galen Strawson, Oxford, 448 pp, ISBN 0-19-825006-1, lrb.co.uk
- 2021, Thomas Nagel, "Types of Intuition: Thomas Nagel on human rights and moral knowledge", London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 11 (3 June 2021), pp. 3, 5–6, 8. Deontology, consequentialism, utilitarianism.
- 2023: "Leader of the Martians" (review of J.L. Austin: "Is it not possible that the next century may see the birth... of a true and comprehensive science of language? Then we shall have rid ourselves of one more part of philosophy... in the only way we ever can get rid of philosophy, by kicking it upstairs." (p. 10.)
See also
- American philosophy
- List of American philosophers
- New York University Department of Philosophy
- David Chalmers
- Frank Jackson
- Galen Strawson
- Hard problem of consciousness
- Knowledge argument
- Phenomenology
- Neutral monism
References
- ^ Nagel, Thomas, 1979, "Panpsychism", in Nagel, Thomas (1979). Mortal questions. London: Canto. pp. 181–195.
- ^ Coleman, Sam (2018). "The Evolution of Nagel's Panpsychism" (PDF). Klesis. 41. Retrieved September 19, 2019.
- ^ "Thomas Nagel". as.nyu.edu. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
- ^ NYU School of Law. Retrieved March 7, 2017.
- ^ "Thomas Nagel - Overview | NYU School of Law". its.law.nyu.edu. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
- ^ a b "Nagel, Thomas 1937-". Encyclopedia.com. November 24, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
- ^ a b "jewniversity-corner-what-makes-life-worthwhile-what-is-the-meaning-of-life-thomas-nagel-1.460387". www.thejc.com. Retrieved July 4, 2018.
- ^ "Jewniversity corner: What makes life worthwhile? - The Jewish Chronicle". Archived from the original on July 5, 2018.
- ^ Nagel, Thomas (2009). "Analytic Philosophy and Human Life". Economia Politica. 26 (1).
- ISBN 978-0-19-513636-4.
- ^ a b "Nagel's CV at NYU" (PDF). Myu.edu. Retrieved October 31, 2014.
- ^ "The Rolf Schock Prizes 2008". May 12, 2008. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
- ^ "Balzan Prize 2008 (1 Million Swiss Francs) Awarded for Moral Philosophy". Apaonline.org. Retrieved September 30, 2008.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Oxford University Gazette, 20 June 2008: Encaenia 2008". Ox.ac.uk. Retrieved October 31, 2014.
- ^ Nagel, Thomas. 1986, The View from Nowhere. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Chapter VI.
- ^ Nagel, "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" (1974), p. 436.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-991975-8.
- ^ Nagel, Thomas. (2008). "Public education and intelligent design," Philosophy & Public Affairs, 36(2), pp. 187–205
- ^ "Arguments: Thomas Nagel and Stephen C. Meyer's Signature in the Cell - TLS". The-tls.co.uk. Retrieved October 31, 2014.
- JSTOR 27944340.
- S2CID 11457496.
- ^ Nagel, Thomas, The Last Word, Oxford University Press, 1997, P. 130
- ^ The full quotation is "... the natural view that death is an evil because it brings to an end all the goods that life contains. We need not give an account of these goods here, except to observe that some of them, like perception, desire, activity, and thought, are so general as to be constitutive of human life. They are widely regarded as formidable benefits in themselves, despite the fact that they are conditions of misery as well as of happiness, and that a sufficient quantity of more particular evils can perhaps outweigh them. That is what is meant, I think by the allegation that it is good simply to be alive, even if one is undergoing terrible experiences. The situation is roughly this: There are elements which, it added to one's experience, make life better; there are other elements which if added to one's experience, make life worse. But what remains when these are set aside is not merely neutral: it is emphatically positive. Therefore life is worth living even when the bad elements of experience are plentiful, and the good ones too meager to outweigh the bad ones on their own. The additional positive weight is supplied by experience itself, rather than by any of its consequences." 'Death' (essay), Thomas Nagel, CUP, 1979 http://dbanach.com/death.htm Note that the paragraph in the earlier 1970 version of the essay published in Nous; Death Author(s): Thomas Nagel Source: Noûs, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Feb ... static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1011404/27295252/.../Nagel_Death.pdf?token... https://faculty.arts.ubc.ca/maydede/mind/Nagel_Death.pdf ends at "perhaps outweigh them."
- ^ Rhys Southan explains such ordinary experiences as having value "... because of the almost unbelievable fact that there is a world at all, and that we're conscious beings who get to be in it, feelings its sensations, and interacting with it and other similarly improbable existers." http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/the-vise-side-of-life/
- S2CID 171277680.
Further reading
- Thomas, Alan (2015), Thomas Nagel, Routledge.
External links
- "Thomas Nagel". NYU. Dpt of Philosophy.
- "Nagel's CV" (PDF). NYU.
- "What is it like to be a bat?". Philosophical Review. LXXXIII (4): 435–450. October 1974. JSTOR 2183914.
- "Thomas Nagel". The New York Review of Books.