Thor

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Thor's Fight with the Giants (Tors strid med jättarna) by Mårten Eskil Winge (1872).

Thor (from

Proto-Germanic theonym
*Þun(a)raz, meaning 'Thunder'.

Thor is a prominently mentioned god throughout the

containing the name of the god bear witness to his popularity.

Due to the nature of the Germanic corpus, narratives featuring Thor are only attested in Old Norse, where Thor appears throughout Norse mythology. Norse mythology, largely recorded in Iceland from traditional material stemming from Scandinavia, provides numerous tales featuring the god. In these sources, Thor bears at least fifteen names, and is the husband of the golden-haired goddess Sif and the lover of the jötunn Járnsaxa. With Sif, Thor fathered the goddess (and possible valkyrie) Þrúðr; with Járnsaxa, he fathered Magni; with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fathered Móði, and he is the stepfather of the god Ullr. Thor is the son of Odin and Jörð,[1] by way of his father Odin, he has numerous brothers, including Baldr. Thor has two servants, Þjálfi and Röskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr (whom he eats and resurrects), and is ascribed three dwellings (Bilskirnir, Þrúðheimr, and Þrúðvangr). Thor wields the hammer Mjölnir, wears the belt Megingjörð and the iron gloves Járngreipr, and owns the staff Gríðarvölr. Thor's exploits, including his relentless slaughter of his foes and fierce battles with the monstrous serpent Jörmungandr—and their foretold mutual deaths during the events of Ragnarök—are recorded throughout sources for Norse mythology.

Into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in rural folklore throughout

Germanic-speaking Europe. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the week Thursday bears his name (modern English Thursday derives from Old English þunresdæġ, 'Þunor's day'), and names stemming from the pagan period containing his own continue to be used today, particularly in Scandinavia. Thor has inspired numerous works of art and references to Thor appear in modern popular culture. Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Thor is revived in the modern period in Heathenry
.

Name

The name Thor appears in the medieval Germanic languages as Donar (

Proto-Norse two-syllable form which can be reconstructed as *Þunarr and/or *Þunurr (evidenced by the poems Hymiskviða and Þórsdrápa, and modern Elfdalian tųosdag 'Thursday'), through the common Old Norse development of the sequence -unr- to -ór-.[3]

All these forms of Thor's name descend from

Fergunja–*Fercunyā (from *perkwun-iyā 'wooded mountains', i.e. *Perkwunos' realm).[7]

The English

Roman period, ancient Germanic peoples adopted the Latin weekly calendar and replaced the names of Roman gods with their own.[8][9]

Beginning in the Viking Age, personal names containing the theonym Þórr are recorded with great frequency, whereas no examples are known prior to this period. Þórr-based names may have flourished during the Viking Age as a defiant response to attempts at Christianization, similar to the widespread Viking Age practice of wearing Thor's hammer pendants.[10]

Historical attestations

Roman era

Altar stone for Hercules Magusanus from Bonn, dated 226 AD.[11]

The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans, and in these works Thor is frequently referred to – via a process known as

Jupiter (also known as Jove) or the Greco-Roman god Hercules
.

The first clear example of this occurs in the Roman historian

Proto-Germanic deity *Þunraz.[15]

Post-Roman era

Boniface bears his crucifix after felling Thor's Oak in Bonifacius (1905) by Emil Doepler

The first recorded instance of the name of the god appears upon the Nordendorf fibulae, a piece of jewelry created during the Migration Period and found in Bavaria. The item bears an Elder Futhark inscribed with the name Þonar (i.e. Donar), the southern Germanic form of Thor's name.[16]

Around the second half of the 8th century, Old English texts mention Thunor (Þunor), which likely refers to a Saxon version of the god. In relation, Thunor is sometimes used in Old English texts to gloss Jupiter, the god may be referenced in the poem Solomon and Saturn, where the thunder strikes the devil with a "fiery axe", and the Old English expression þunorrād ("thunder ride") may refer to the god's thunderous, goat-led chariot.[17][18]

A 9th-century AD codex from

converting to Christianity.[19]

According to a near-contemporary account, the Christian missionary

oak tree dedicated to "Jove" in the 8th century, the Donar's Oak in the region of Hesse, Germany.[20]

The

Kentish royal legend, probably 11th-century, contains the story of a villainous reeve of Ecgberht of Kent called Thunor, who is swallowed up by the earth at a place from then on known as þunores hlæwe (Old English 'Thunor's mound'). Gabriel Turville-Petre saw this as an invented origin for the placename demonstrating loss of memory that Thunor had been a god's name.[21]

16th-century depiction of Norse gods from Olaus Magnus's A Description of the Northern Peoples; from left to right, Frigg, Thor and Odin

Viking age

In the 11th century, chronicler

Woden and "Fricco") located in Gamla Uppsala, Sweden. Adam details that "Thor, they reckon, rules the sky; he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility" and that "Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter". Adam details that the people of Uppsala had appointed priests to each of the gods, and that the priests were to offer up sacrifices. In Thor's case, he continues, these sacrifices were done when plague or famine threatened.[22] Earlier in the same work, Adam relays that in 1030 an English preacher, Wulfred, was lynched by assembled Germanic pagans for "profaning" a representation of Thor.[23]

Two objects with

Canterbury Charm from Canterbury, England, calls upon Thor to heal a wound by banishing a thurs.[24] The second, the Kvinneby amulet, invokes protection by both Thor and his hammer.[25]

On four (or possibly five)

Sö 140), but the reading is contested.[26]

Pictorial representations of Thor's hammer appear on a total of five runestones found in Denmark (DR 26 and DR 120) and in the Swedish counties of Västergötland (VG 113) and Södermanland (Sö 86 and Sö 111).[26] It is also seen on runestone DR 48.[citation needed] The design is believed to be a heathen response to Christian runestones, which often have a cross at the centre. One of the stones, Sö 86, shows a face or mask above the hammer. Anders Hultgård has argued that this is the face of Thor.[27] At least three stones depict Thor fishing for the serpent Jörmungandr: the Hørdum stone in Thy, Denmark, the Altuna Runestone in Altuna, Sweden and the Gosforth Cross in Gosforth, England. Sune Lindqvist argued in the 1930s that the image stone Ardre VIII on Gotland depicts two scenes from the story: Thor ripping the head of Hymir's ox and Thor and Hymir in the boat,[28] but this has been disputed.[29]

Image gallery

  • The Sønder Kirkeby Runestone (DR 220), a runestone from Denmark bearing the "May Thor hallow these runes!" inscription
    The Sønder Kirkeby Runestone (DR 220), a runestone from Denmark bearing the "May Thor hallow these runes!" inscription
  • A runestone from Södermanland, Sweden bearing a depiction of Thor's hammer
    A runestone from Södermanland, Sweden bearing a depiction of Thor's hammer
  • The Altuna stone from Sweden, one of four stones depicting Thor's fishing trip
    The
    Altuna stone
    from Sweden, one of four stones depicting Thor's fishing trip
  • Closeup of Thor with Mjölnir depicted on the Altuna stone.
    Closeup of Thor with Mjölnir depicted on the Altuna stone.
  • The Gosforth depiction, one of four stones depicting Thor's fishing trip
    The Gosforth depiction, one of four stones depicting Thor's fishing trip
  • Runes (᛭ᚦᚢᚱ᛬ᚢᛁᚴᛁ᛭) × þur : uiki × on the Velanda Runestone, Sweden, meaning "may Þórr hallow".
    Runes (᛭ᚦᚢᚱ᛬ᚢᛁᚴᛁ᛭) × þur : uiki × on the Velanda Runestone, Sweden, meaning "may Þórr hallow".
  • Thor and Jörmungandr by Lorenz Frølich
    Thor and Jörmungandr by Lorenz Frølich

Post-Viking age

In the 12th century, more than a century after Norway was "officially" Christianized, Thor was still being invoked by the population, as evidenced by a stick bearing a runic message found among the Bryggen inscriptions in Bergen, Norway. On the stick, both Thor and Odin are called upon for help; Thor is asked to "receive" the reader, and Odin to "own" them.[30]

Poetic Edda

In the Poetic Edda, compiled during the 13th century from traditional source material reaching into the pagan period, Thor appears (or is mentioned) in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Skírnismál, Hárbarðsljóð, Hymiskviða, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Alvíssmál, and Hyndluljóð.[31]

The foretold death of Thor as depicted by Lorenz Frølich (1895)
Thor and the Midgard Serpent (by Emil Doepler, 1905)

In the poem Völuspá, a dead

völva recounts the history of the universe and foretells the future to the disguised god Odin, including the death of Thor. Thor, she foretells, will do battle with the great serpent during the immense mythic war waged at Ragnarök
, and there he will slay the monstrous snake, yet after he will only be able to take nine steps before succumbing to the venom of the beast:

Benjamin Thorpe translation:
Then comes the mighty son of

Hlôdyn
:
(Odin's son goes with the monster to fight);
Midgârd's Veor in his rage will slay the worm.
Nine feet will go Fiörgyn's son,
bowed by the serpent, who feared no foe.
All men will their homes forsake.[32]

Henry Adams Bellows translation:
Hither there comes the son of Hlothyn,
The bright snake gapes to heaven above;
...
Against the serpent goes Othin's son.
In anger smites the warder of earth,—
Forth from their homes must all men flee;—
Nine paces fares the son of Fjorgyn,
And, slain by the serpent, fearless he sinks.[33]

Afterwards, says the völva, the sky will turn black before fire engulfs the world, the stars will disappear, flames will dance before the sky, steam will rise, the world will be covered in water and then it will be raised again, green and fertile.[34]

Thor wades through a river while the Æsir ride across the bridge Bifröst, by Frølich (1895)

In the poem Grímnismál, the god Odin, in disguise as Grímnir, and tortured, starved and thirsty, imparts in the young Agnar cosmological lore, including that Thor resides in Þrúðheimr, and that, every day, Thor wades through the rivers Körmt and Örmt, and the two Kerlaugar. There, Grímnir says, Thor sits as judge at the immense cosmological world tree, Yggdrasil.[35]

In Skírnismál, the god Freyr's messenger, Skírnir, threatens the fair Gerðr, with whom Freyr is smitten, with numerous threats and curses, including that Thor, Freyr, and Odin will be angry with her, and that she risks their "potent wrath".[36]

Thor is the main character of

Hárbarðr (Odin, again in disguise), and attempts to hail a ride from him. The ferryman, shouting from the inlet, is immediately rude and obnoxious to Thor and refuses to ferry him. At first, Thor holds his tongue, but Hárbarðr only becomes more aggressive, and the poem soon becomes a flyting match between Thor and Hárbarðr, all the while revealing lore about the two, including Thor's killing of several jötnar in "the east" and women on Hlesey (now the Danish island of Læsø). In the end, Thor ends up walking instead.[37]

Týr looks on as Thor discovers that one of his goats is lame, by Frølich (1895)

Thor is again the main character in the poem Hymiskviða, where, after the gods have been hunting and have eaten their prey, they have an urge to drink. They "sh[ake] the twigs" and interpret what they say. The gods decide that they would find suitable cauldrons at Ægir's home. Thor arrives at Ægir's home and finds him to be cheerful, looks into his eyes, and tells him that he must prepare feasts for the gods. Annoyed, Ægir tells Thor that the gods must first bring to him a suitable cauldron to brew ale in. The gods search but find no such cauldron anywhere. However, Týr tells Thor that he may have a solution; east of Élivágar lives Hymir, and he owns such a deep kettle.[38]

So, after Thor secures his goats at Egil's home, Thor and Týr go to Hymir's hall in search of a cauldron large enough to brew ale for them all. They arrive, and Týr sees his nine-hundred-headed grandmother and his gold-clad mother, the latter of which welcomes them with a horn. After Hymir—who is not happy to see Thor—comes in from the cold outdoors, Týr's mother helps them find a properly strong cauldron. Thor eats a big meal of two oxen (all the rest eat but one), and then goes to sleep. In the morning, he awakes and informs Hymir that he wants to go fishing the following evening, and that he will catch plenty of food, but that he needs bait. Hymir tells him to go get some bait from his pasture, which he expects should not be a problem for Thor. Thor goes out, finds Hymir's best ox, and rips its head off.[39]

After a lacuna in the manuscript of the poem, Hymiskviða abruptly picks up again with Thor and Hymir in a boat, out at sea. Hymir catches a few whales at once, and Thor baits his line with the head of the ox. Thor casts his line and the monstrous serpent Jörmungandr bites. Thor pulls the serpent on board, and violently slams him in the head with his hammer. Jörmungandr shrieks, and a noisy commotion is heard from underwater before another lacuna appears in the manuscript.[40]

After the second lacuna, Hymir is sitting in the boat, unhappy and totally silent, as they row back to shore. On shore, Hymir suggests that Thor should help him carry a whale back to his farm. Thor picks both the boat and the whales up, and carries it all back to Hymir's farm. After Thor successfully smashes a crystal goblet by throwing it at Hymir's head on Týr's mother's suggestion, Thor and Týr are given the cauldron. Týr cannot lift it, but Thor manages to roll it, and so with it they leave. Some distance from Hymir's home, an army of many-headed beings led by Hymir attacks the two, but are killed by the hammer of Thor. Although one of his goats is lame in the leg, the two manage to bring the cauldron back, have plenty of ale, and so, from then on, return to Týr's for more every winter.[41]

Thor raises his hammer as Loki leaves Ægir's hall, by Frølich (1895)

In the poem Lokasenna, the half-god Loki angrily flites with the gods in the sea entity Ægir's hall. Thor does not attend the event, however, as he is away in the east for unspecified purposes. Towards the end of the poem, the flyting turns to Sif, Thor's wife, whom Loki then claims to have slept with. The god Freyr's servant Beyla interjects, and says that, since all of the mountains are shaking, she thinks that Thor is on his way home. Beyla adds that Thor will bring peace to the quarrel, to which Loki responds with insults.[42]

Thor arrives and tells Loki to be silent, and threatens to rip Loki's head from his body with his hammer. Loki asks Thor why he is so angry, and comments that Thor will not be so daring to fight "the wolf" (Fenrir) when it eats Odin (a reference to the foretold events of Ragnarök). Thor again tells him to be silent, and threatens to throw him into the sky, where he will never be seen again. Loki says that Thor should not brag of his time in the east, as he once crouched in fear in the thumb of a glove (a story involving deception by the magic of Útgarða-Loki, recounted in the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning)—which, he comments, "was hardly like Thor". Thor again tells him to be silent, threatening to break every bone in Loki's body. Loki responds that he intends to live a while yet, and again insults Thor with references to his encounter with Útgarða-Loki. Thor responds with a fourth call to be silent, and threatens to send Loki to Hel. At Thor's final threat, Loki gives in, commenting that only for Thor will he leave the hall, for "I know alone that you do strike", and the poem continues.[43]

Ah, what a lovely maid it is! (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith: Thor is unhappily dressed by the goddess Freyja and her attendants as herself

In the comedic poem Þrymskviða, Thor again plays a central role. In the poem, Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer, Mjölnir, is missing. Thor turns to Loki, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen. The two go to the dwelling of the goddess Freyja, and so that he may attempt to find Mjölnir, Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak. Freyja agrees, and says she would lend it to Thor even if it were made of silver or gold, and Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling.[44]

In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on a barrow, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses. Þrymr sees Loki, and asks what could be amiss among the Æsir and the elves; why is Loki alone in Jötunheimr? Loki responds that he has bad news for both the elves and the Æsir—that Thor's hammer, Mjölnir, is gone. Þrymr says that he has hidden Mjölnir eight leagues beneath the earth, from which it will be retrieved, but only if Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling, away from Jötunheimr and back to the court of the gods.[45]

Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he is still in the air as "tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies." Loki states that it was indeed an effort, and also a success, for he has discovered that Þrymr has the hammer, but that it cannot be retrieved unless Freyja is brought to Þrymr as his wife. The two return to Freyja and tell her to put on a bridal head dress, as they will drive her to Jötunheimr. Freyja, indignant and angry, goes into a rage, causing all of the halls of the Æsir to tremble in her anger, and her necklace, the famed Brísingamen, falls from her. Freyja pointedly refuses.[46]

As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold a

Heimdallr puts forth the suggestion that, in place of Freyja, Thor should be dressed as the bride, complete with jewels, women's clothing down to his knees, a bridal head-dress, and the necklace Brísingamen. Thor rejects the idea, yet Loki interjects that this will be the only way to get back Mjölnir. Loki points out that, without Mjölnir, the jötnar will be able to invade and settle in Asgard. The gods dress Thor as a bride, and Loki states that he will go with Thor as his maid, and that the two shall drive to Jötunheimr together.[47]

After riding together in Thor's goat-driven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive in Jötunheimr. Þrymr commands the jötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, for Freyja has arrived to be his wife. Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating that Freyja was all that he was missing in his wealth.[48]

Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet with Þrymr and the assembled jötnar. Thor eats and drinks ferociously, consuming entire animals and three casks of mead. Þrymr finds the behavior at odds with his impression of Freyja, and Loki, sitting before Þrymr and appearing as a "very shrewd maid", makes the excuse that "Freyja's" behaviour is due to her having not consumed anything for eight entire days before arriving due to her eagerness to arrive. Þrymr then lifts "Freyja's" veil and wants to kiss "her". Terrifying eyes stare back at him, seemingly burning with fire. Loki says that this is because "Freyja" has not slept for eight nights in her eagerness.[48]

The "wretched sister" of the jötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from "Freyja", and the jötnar bring out Mjölnir to "sanctify the bride", to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by "the hand" of the goddess Vár. Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr, beats all of the jötnar, kills their "older sister", and so gets his hammer back.[49]

dwarf
, whom he has outwitted

In the poem

dwarf, Alvíss, to his doom upon finding that he seeks to wed his daughter (unnamed, possibly Þrúðr). As the poem starts, Thor meets a dwarf who talks about getting married. Thor finds the dwarf repulsive and, apparently, realizes that the bride is his daughter. Thor comments that the wedding agreement was made among the gods while Thor was gone, and that the dwarf must seek his consent. To do so, Thor says, Alvíss must tell him what he wants to know about all of the worlds that the dwarf has visited. In a long question and answer session, Alvíss does exactly that; he describes natural features as they are known in the languages of various races of beings in the world, and gives an amount of cosmological lore.[50]

However, the question and answer session turns out to be a ploy by Thor, as, although Thor comments that he has truly never seen anyone with more wisdom in their breast, Thor has managed to delay the dwarf enough for the Sun to turn him to stone; "day dawns on you now, dwarf, now sun shines on the hall".[51]

In the poem

Hyndla to blót (sacrifice) to Thor so that she may be protected, and comments that Thor does not care much for jötunn women.[52]

Prose Edda, Heimskringla, and sagas

The prologue to the Prose Edda euhemerises Thor as a prince of Troy, and the son of Menon by Troana, a daughter of Priam. Thor, also known as Tror, is said to have married the prophetess Sibyl (identified with Sif). Thor is further said here to have been raised in Thrace by a chieftain named Lorikus, whom he later slew to assume the title of "King of Thrace", to have had a pale complexion and hair "fairer than gold", and to have been strong enough to lift ten bearskins.[53] In later sagas he is described as red-bearded,[54] but there is no evidence for a red beard in the Eddas.[55]

The name of the æsir is explained as "men from

Asia", Asgard being the "Asian city" (i.e., Troy). Alternatively, Troy is in Tyrkland (Turkey, i.e., Asia Minor), and Asialand is Scythia
, where Thor founded a new city named Asgard. Odin is a remote descendant of Thor, removed by twelve generations, who led an expedition across Germany, Denmark and Sweden to Norway.

In the Prose Edda, Thor is mentioned in all four books; Prologue, Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál, and Háttatal.

In

Hákonar saga góða, Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar, and Óláfs saga helga. In Ynglinga saga chapter 5, a heavily euhemerized account of the gods is provided, where Thor is described as having been a gothi—a pagan priest—who was given by Odin (who himself is explained away as having been an exceedingly powerful magic-wielding chieftain from the east) a dwelling in the mythical location of Þrúðvangr, in what is now Sweden. The saga narrative adds that numerous names—at the time of the narrative, popularly in use—were derived from Thor.[56]

Saint Olaf

Medieval depictions of Saint Olaf adopted features from Thor. This wooden statue is from Sankt Olofs kyrka in Scania.

Around the 12th century, folk traditions and iconography of the Christianizing king Olaf II of Norway (Saint Olaf; c. 995 – 1030) absorbed elements of both Thor and Freyr.[57] After Olaf's death, his cult had spread quickly all over Scandinavia, where many churches were dedicated to him, as well as to other parts of Northern Europe. His cult distinctively mixed both ecclesiastical and folk elements. From Thor, he inherited the quick temper, physical strength and merits as a giant-slayer. Early depictions portray Olaf as clean-shaven, but after 1200 he appears with a red beard.[58] For centuries, Olaf figured in folk traditions as a slayer of trolls and giants, and as a protector against malicious forces.[59]

Modern folklore

Tales about Thor, or influenced by native traditions regarding Thor, continued into the modern period, particularly in Scandinavia. Writing in the 19th century, scholar Jacob Grimm records various phrases surviving into Germanic languages that refer to the god, such as the Norwegian Thorsvarme ("Thor's warmth") for lightning and the Swedish godgubben åfar ("The good old (fellow) is taking a ride") as well as the word tordön ("Thor's rumble" or "Thor's thunder") when it thunders. Grimm comments that, at times, Scandinavians often "no longer liked to utter the god's real name, or they wished to extol his fatherly goodness".[60] In Sweden, it was probably as a euphemism that people referred to thunder as "the ride of the god" – *ās-ækia (OWN: *áss-ekja) resulting in the modern Swedish word for thunder – åska.[61]

Thor remained pictured as a red-bearded figure, as evident by the Danish rhyme that yet referred to him as Thor med sit lange skæg ("Thor with his long beard") and the

North-Frisian curse diis ruadhiiret donner regiir! ("let red-haired thunder see to that!").[60]

A Scandinavian folk belief that lightning frightens away trolls and jötnar appears in numerous Scandinavian folktales, and may be a late reflection of Thor's role in fighting such beings. In connection, the lack of trolls and ettins in modern Scandinavia is explained as a result of the "accuracy and efficiency of the lightning strokes".[62]

In the Netherlands, The Sagas of Veluwe has a story called Ontstaan van het Uddeler- en Bleeke meer which features Thor and his fight with the Winter Giants.[63]

Archaeological record

Hammer pendants, hammer coins, and Eyrarland Statue

Around 1000 pendants in distinctive shapes representing the hammer of Thor have been unearthed in what are today the Nordic countries, England, northern Germany, the Baltic countries, and Russia. Most have very simple designs in iron or silver. Around 100 have more advanced designs with ornaments. The pendants have been found in a variety of contexts (including at urban sites, and in hoards) and occur in a variety of shapes. Similarly, coins featuring depictions of the hammer have also been discovered.

The Eyrarland Statue, a copper alloy figure found near Akureyri, Iceland dating from around the 11th century, may depict Thor seated and gripping his hammer.[64]

  • Drawing of a silver-gilted Thor's hammer found in Scania, Sweden
    Drawing of a silver-gilted Thor's hammer found in Scania, Sweden
  • Drawing of a 4.6 cm gold-plated silver Mjölnir pendant found at Bredsätra on Öland, Sweden
    Drawing of a 4.6 cm gold-plated silver Mjölnir pendant found at Bredsätra on Öland, Sweden
  • Drawing of a silver Thor's hammer amulet found in Fitjar, Hordaland, Norway
    Drawing of a silver Thor's hammer amulet found in Fitjar, Hordaland, Norway
  • Drawing of Thor's hammer amulet from Mandemark, Møn, Denmark
    Drawing of Thor's hammer amulet from Mandemark, Møn, Denmark
  • A bronze statue of a seated figure from about AD 1000 that was recovered at the Eyrarland farm in the area of Akureyri, Iceland.
    A bronze statue of a seated figure from about AD 1000 that was recovered at the Eyrarland farm in the area of Akureyri, Iceland.

Swastikas

Detail of swastika on the 9th century Snoldelev Stone

The swastika symbol has been identified as representing the hammer or lightning of Thor.[65] Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson (1965) comments on the usage of the swastika as a symbol of Thor:

The protective sign of the hammer was worn by women, as we know from the fact that it has been found in women's graves. It seems to have been used by the warrior also, in the form of the swastika. ... Primarily it appears to have had connections with light and fire, and to have been linked with the sun-wheel. It may have been on account of Thor's association with lightning that this sign was used as an alternative to the hammer, for it is found on memorial stones in Scandinavia besides inscriptions to Thor. When we find it on the pommel of a warrior's sword and on his sword-belt, the assumption is that the warrior was placing himself under the Thunder God's protection.[66]

Swastikas appear on various Germanic objects stretching from the Migration Period to the Viking Age, such as the 3rd century

Anglo-Saxon England; the 8th century Sæbø sword from Sogn, Norway; and the 9th century Snoldelev Stone (DR 248) from Ramsø
, Denmark.

Eponymy and toponymy

A city limit sign marking Thorsager ("Thor's Acre"), Denmark
Sign for the village of Thursley in Surrey, England

Numerous place names in

heathen hofs), and –lundr (a holy grove). The place name Þórslundr is recorded with particular frequency in Denmark (and has direct cognates in Norse settlements in Ireland, such as Coill Tomair), whereas Þórshof appears particularly often in southern Norway.[67] Torsö (Thor's Island) appears on the Swedish west coast. Thor also appears in many place names in Uppland
.

In

English place names, Old English Thunor (in contrast with the Old Norse form of the name, later introduced to the Danelaw) left comparatively few traces. Examples include Thundersley, from *Thunores hlæw and Thurstable (Old English "Thunor's pillar").[67] F. M. Stenton noted that such place names were apparently restricted to Saxon and Jutish territory and not found in Anglian areas.[17][68]

In what is now Germany, locations named after Thor are sparsely recorded, but a number of locations called Donnersberg (German "Donner's mountain") may derive their name from the deity Donner, the southern Germanic form of the god's name.[67] In as late as the 19th century in

meteorites may be considered memorials to Thor in folk tradition due to their sheer weight. On the Swedish island of Gotland, a species of beetle (Scarabæus stercorarius) was named after the god; the Thorbagge. When the beetle is found turned upside down and one flips it over, Thor's favor may be gained. In other regions of Sweden the name of the beetle appears to have been demonized with Christianization, where the insect came to be known as Thordedjefvul or Thordyfvel (both meaning "Thor-devil").[70]

In the northwest of Spain, there is a river called Torío in the municipality of Cármenes (León) that take name from the god Thor.[71]

Origin, theories, and interpretations

Thor closely resembles other Indo-European deities associated with the thunder: the

Slavic Perun,[74] and particularly the Hindu Indra, whose thunderbolt weapon the vajra is an obvious parallels noted already by Max Müller.[75] Scholars have compared Indra's slaying of Vritra with Thor's battle with Jörmungandr.[73] Although in the past it was suggested that Thor was an indigenous sky god or a Viking Age import into Scandinavia, these Indo-European parallels make him generally accepted today as ultimately derived from a Proto-Indo-European deity.[73][76][77][78]

In

Hora galles ("Good-man Thor"). For Dumézil, this is the preservation by peasants of only the side-effect of the god's atmospheric battles: the fertilizing rain.[80] Others have emphasized Thor's close connection to humanity, in all its concerns.[81] Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson
summarizes:

The cult of Thor was linked with men's habitation and possessions, and with the well-being of the family and community. This included the fruitfulness of the fields, and Thor, although pictured primarily as a

earth goddess, when he comes to earth in the thunderstorm and the storm brings the rain which makes the fields fertile. In this way Thor, as well as Odin, may be seen to continue the cult of the sky god which was known in the Bronze Age.[82]

Modern influence

Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent (1790) by Henry Fuseli
An early 20th century Danish bicycle head badge depicting Thor

In modern times, Thor continues to be referred to in art and fiction. Starting with F. J. Klopstock's 1776 ode to Thor, Wir und Sie, Thor has been the subject of poems in several languages, including

Hans Friedrich Blunck's Herr Dunnar und die Bauern (published in Märchen und Sagen, 1937); and Die Heimholung des Hammers (1977) by H. C. Artmann.[83] In English he features for example in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "The Challenge of Thor" (1863)[84] and in two works by Rudyard Kipling: Letters of Travel: 1892–1913 and "Cold Iron" in Rewards and Fairies. L. Sprague de Camp's Harold Shea
met with Thor, as with other Norse gods, in the first of Shea's many fantasy adventures.

Artists have also depicted Thor in painting and sculpture, including Henry Fuseli's 1780 painting Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent; H. E. Freund's 1821–1822 statue Thor; B. E. Fogelberg's 1844 marble statue Thor; Mårten Eskil Winge's 1872 painting Thor's Fight with the Giants; K. Ehrenberg's 1883 drawing Odin, Thor und Magni; several illustrations by E. Doepler published in Wilhelm Ranisch's 1901 Walhall (Thor; Thor und die Midgardschlange; Thor den Hrungnir bekämpfend; Thor bei dem Riesen Þrym als Braut verkleidet; Thor bei Hymir; Thor bei Skrymir; Thor den Fluß Wimur durchwatend); J. C. Dollman's 1909 drawings Thor and the Mountain and Sif and Thor; G. Poppe's painting Thor; E. Pottner's 1914 drawing Thors Schatten; H. Natter's marble statue Thor; and U. Brember's 1977 illustrations to Die Heimholung des Hammers by H. C. Artmann.[83]

In the fields of science and technology, Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) discovered a chemical element that he named after Thor – thorium.[85] Thor is also the namesake of the PGM-17 Thor missile.

In 1962, American comic book artist

Journey Into Mystery a series featuring Thor as a superhero.[86] This version of Thor is portrayed as a clean-shaven blonde, instead of red-haired and bearded. The magazine soon added the backup feature "Tales of Asgard" in which Kirby illustrated stories from Norse mythology; eventually, the magazine was retitled Thor. Lee and Kirby included Thor as a founding member of their superhero team the Avengers. Thor has been portrayed in the Marvel Cinematic Universe by Australian actor Chris Hemsworth, appearing in Thor, The Avengers, Thor: The Dark World, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Doctor Strange, Team Thor, Thor: Ragnarok, Avengers: Infinity War, Avengers: Endgame and Thor: Love and Thunder.[87] Thor has also been featured in comic books by other publishers. In the Savage Dragon comics, Thor is portrayed as a villain. In Neil Gaiman's Sandman
comic, Thor is portrayed as a buffoon who wields a tiny toffee hammer.

First described in 2013,

vertebrae.[88] The team named the shrew after Thor due to the god's association with strength.[88]

From 2015 to 2017, a fictionalised version of Thor was a supporting character in

fantasy novels written by American author Rick Riordan and published by Disney-Hyperion, set in the same fictional universe as the Camp Half-Blood Chronicles, and The Kane Chronicles series by the same author. Neil Gaiman's books American Gods and Norse Mythology
also feature Thor.

In January 2020, the streaming service Netflix produced Ragnarok. In the show, a high school student, Magne Seier, receives Thor's powers and abilities to fight the giants that are polluting Norway and murdering people. Netflix released the second season on 27 May 2021. Thor/Magne is portrayed by David Stakston.[90]

Thor is also featured in a number of video games. In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game Age of Mythology, Thor is one of three major gods Norse players can worship.[91][92][93] In Santa Monica Studio's 2018 video game God of War, Thor is mentioned throughout and his sons Magni and Modi are secondary antagonists. Thor makes an appearance at the end of the main storyline if certain difficulty conditions are met by the player.[94][95] He makes a much more substantial appearance in the game's 2022 sequel God of War Ragnarök as a primary antagonist, played by Ryan Hurst.[96] Thor is also mentioned in Ubisoft's 2020 game Assassin's Creed Valhalla, where items of his such as Mjölnir can be found and used by the player in combat.[97] Thor is also one of the playable gods in the third-person multiplayer online battle arena game Smite.[98]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Lindow 2002, p. 205.
  2. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 618; Orel 2003, p. 429
  3. ^
    S2CID 261040519
    .
  4. ^ Orel 2003, p. 429, Delamarre 2003, p. 290
  5. ^ Delamarre 2003, p. 290; Matasović 2009, p. 384; Koch 2020, pp. 142–144.
  6. JSTOR 3270472
    .
  7. ^ Koch 2020, pp. 142–144.
  8. ^ Simek 2007.
  9. .
  10. ^ Simek 2007, p. 321.
  11. ^ Roymans 2009, p. 227.
  12. ^ Birley (1999:42).
  13. ^ Birley (1999:107).
  14. ^ Birley (1999:42 and 106—107).
  15. ^ Simek 1984, pp. 172–173.
  16. ^ Simek (2007:235—236).
  17. ^ a b Turville-Petre (1964:99)
  18. ^ See North (1998:238—241) for þunnorad and tales regarding Thunor.
  19. ^ Simek (2007:276).
  20. ^ Simek (2007:238) and Robinson (1916:63).
  21. Stowe 944
    , Cotton Caligula A. xiv, London, Lambeth Palace 427.
  22. ^ Orchard (1997:168—169).
  23. ^ North (1998:236).
  24. ^ McLeod, Mees (2006:120).
  25. ^ McLeod, Mees (2006:28).
  26. ^ a b Sawyer (2003:128).
  27. ^ McKinnell, Simek, Düwel (2004:122—123).
  28. ^ Lindqvist (1933:102—103).
  29. ^ Meulengracht Sørensen (1986:262, 269).
  30. ^ McLeod, Mees (2006:30).
  31. ^ Larrington (1999:320).
  32. ^ Thorpe (1907:7).
  33. ^ Bellows (1923:23).
  34. ^ Larrington (1999:11—12).
  35. ^ Larrington (1999:57).
  36. ^ Larrington (1999:66).
  37. ^ Larrington (1999:69–75).
  38. ^ Larrington (1999:78—79).
  39. ^ Larrington (1999:79—80).
  40. ^ Larrington (1999:81).
  41. ^ Larrington (1999:82—83).
  42. ^ Larrington (1999:84 and 94).
  43. ^ Larrington (1999:94—95).
  44. ^ Larrington (1999:97).
  45. ^ Larrington (1999:97–98).
  46. ^ Larrington (1999:98).
  47. ^ Larrington (1999:99).
  48. ^ a b Larrington (1999:100).
  49. ^ Larrington (1999:101).
  50. ^ Larrington (1999:109—113). For Þrúðr hypothesis, see Orchard (1997:164—165).
  51. ^ Larrington (1999:113).
  52. ^ Larrington (1999:254).
  53. from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023. Page 120: "He was as fair in appearance, when he came among other men, as when ivory is inlaid in oak. His hair is fairer than gold."
  54. .
  55. from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023. Page 77: "It has always seemed a bit odd to me that this particular interpretation - that the major cosmological poem of Norse mythology is built on Christian motives that are never stated or alluded to in the text- has become hardwired in to the discipline of Scandinavian Studies, like the easily disprovable statement repeated by every major scholar that Thor had a red beard in the Eddas.¹³"
  56. ^ Hollander (2007:10—11).
  57. ^ Dumézil (1973:125).
  58. ^ Lindahl, McNamara & Lindow 2002, p. 299.
  59. ^ Astås 1993, p. 446.
  60. ^ a b Grimm (1882:166—77).
  61. ^ Hellquist, Elof (1922). Svensk etymologisk ordbok [Swedish etymological dictionary] (in Swedish). Lund: Gleerup. p. 1202.
  62. ^ See Lindow (1978:89), but noted as early as Thorpe (1851:154) who states, "The dread entertained by the Trolls for thunder dates from the time of paganism, Thor, the god of thunder, being the deadly foe of their race."
  63. ^ Weggelaar, Eva. The Creation of the Uddeler- and Pale Lake – Thunar and the Winter Giants
  64. ^ Orchard (1997:161).
  65. ^ The symbol was identified as such since 19th century scholarship; examples include Worsaae (1882:169) and Greg (1884:6).
  66. ^ Davidson (1965:12—13).
  67. ^ a b c Simek (2007:321).
  68. , pp. 99–100.
  69. ^ Grimm (1882:177).
  70. ^ Thorpe (1851:51—54).
  71. .
  72. ^ De Vries (1957:111).
  73. ^ a b c Simek (2007:322).
  74. ^ Turville-Petre (1964:96–97).
  75. ^ Friedrich Max Müller (1897). Contributions to the Science of Mythology. Longmans Green. pp. 744–749.
  76. ^ Dumézil (1973:17).
  77. ^ De Vries (1957:151–53)
  78. ^ Turville-Petre (1964:103–05)
  79. ^ Dumézil. Heur et malheur du guerrier. 2nd ed. Flammarion, 1985, p. 168 (in French)
  80. ^ Dumézil (1973:71–72).
  81. ^ De Vries (1957:152–53)
  82. ^ Davidson (1975:72).
  83. ^ a b Simek (2007:323).
  84. ^ Arnold (2011:141)
  85. ^ Morris (1992:2212).
  86. ^ Reynolds (1994:54).
  87. ^ "Thor: Chris Hemsworth Talks Future MCU Exit". Den of Geek. 23 June 2022. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  88. ^ a b Johnson (2013).
  89. ^ "Rick Riordan announces 'Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard'". Hypable. 23 September 2014. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  90. ^ Scott, Sheena (29 May 2021). "'Ragnarok' Season 2 On Netflix: Norse Mythology Retold". Forbes. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  91. ^ "Age of Mythology Wiki Guide: The Major Gods". IGN. 23 April 2014. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  92. ^ "Age of Mythology". p. 20 – via webarchive.org.
  93. ^ "Age of Mythology Reference Guide". p. 33 – via webarchive.org.
  94. ^ "Everything Known About God of War's Thor Before Ragnarok Sequel". Game Rant. 4 January 2021. Archived from the original on 12 September 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
  95. ^ "God of War (2018) Wiki Guide: Thor". IGN. 7 November 2022. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  96. ^ "How God of War Ragnarök's characters compare to actual Norse myth". Polygon. 24 April 2018. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  97. ^ Blain, Louise (11 May 2021). "Assassin's Creed Valhalla Thor armor: Where to find Thor's gear and Mjolnir". Games Radar. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  98. ^ "Gods". smitegame.com. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.

References

External links

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