Dougga

Roman theatres were a fundamental element of the monumental make-up of a city from the reign of Augustus.^[58]

The theatre, which was built in AD 168 or 169, is one of the best preserved examples in Roman Africa. It could seat 3500 spectators, even though Dougga only had 5000 inhabitants. It was one of a series of imperial buildings constructed over the course of two centuries at Dougga which deviate from the classic "blueprints" only inasmuch as they have been adapted to take account of the local terrain. Some minor adjustments have been made and the local architects had a certain freedom with regard to the ornamentation of the buildings.^[59]

A dedication engraved into the pediment of the stage and on the portico the dominates the city, recalls the building's commissioner, P. Marcius Quadratus, who "built [it] for his homeland with his own denarii"; the dedication was celebrated with "scenic representations, distributions of life, a festival and athletic games".

The theater is still used for performances of classic theater, particularly during the festival of Dougga, and conservation work has been carried out on it.^[60]

Auditorium

The site known as the auditorium is an annex of the Temple of Liber, which probably served for the initiation of novices. Despite its modern appellation, the auditorium was not a site for spectacles; only its form suggests otherwise. It measures 20 m × 20 m (66 ft × 66 ft).^[61]

Circus

The city has a

The question of whether there was an amphitheater at Dougga has not been conclusively answered. Traditionally, a large elliptic depression to the northwest of the site has been interpreted as the site of an amphitheater. Archeologists have however become much more cautious on this subject.^[38]

Baths

Three Roman baths have been completely excavated at Dougga; a fourth has so far only been partially uncovered. Of these four baths, one ("the bath of the house to the west of the Temple of Tellus") belongs to a private residence, two, the Aïn Doura bath and the bath known for a long time as the "Licinian bath", were, judging by their size, open to the public, while the nature of the last bath, the bath of the Cyclopses, is more difficult to interpret.

Bath of the Cyclopses

During the excavation of the Bath of the

The size of the building (its frigidarium is less than 30 m² (320 sq ft)^[67]) has led some experts to believe that it was a private bath, but the identification of a domus in the immediate vicinity has proven difficult. The "trifolium villa" is quite distant, and the closest ruins are hard to identify as they have not been well preserved.^[67] Yvon Thébert therefore suggests that the bath served the local quarter.^[67]

Antonian or Licinian Bath

The Antonian Bath, which dates from the 3rd century, was known as the Licinian Baths (after emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus) and has several storeys. Louis Poinssot's identification of the bath as dating to Gallienus' reign on the basis of incomplete inscriptions and Dougga's prosperity at this time has been called into question by recent research, conducted in particular by Michel Christol. Christol has suggested that the bath dates from the reign of Caracalla;^[68] this thesis has since been confirmed by an analysis of inscriptions.^[69] Others have even suggested that the bath dates from the reign of the Severan dynasty, because of a particularity which became common a century later in the west: the columns in the northwest peristyle feature daises bearing arches.^[70]

The bath was later used for the production of olive oil at an unknown date.^[71]

The symmetrical building is medium-sized, with an area of 1,700 m² (18,000 sq ft) excluding the palaestra, of which 175 m² (1,880 sq ft) are taken up by the frigidarium.^[71] The construction of the bath required work both to lower and to raise sections of the slope on which it stood, which may explain why parts of the building have been better preserved than others; the section built on raised ground has for the most part been lost.^[72]

Aïn Doura Baths

In the immediate vicinity of Aïn Doura is a partially excavated complex that could turn out to be the largest bath in the city, the Aïn Doura Baths. On the basis of the mosaics that have been found here, it has been suggested that the bath dates from the end of the 2nd century or the start of the 3rd century,^[73] and that the mosaic décor was renewed in the 4th century CE.^[74]

The complex remains largely unexposed, but it seems, according to Yvon Thébert, that it has a symmetrical design, of which only a section of the cold rooms has been excavated.^[74]

The bath of the house to the west of the Temple of Tellus

This bath, measuring 75 m² (810 sq ft), which can be accessed from the house and from the street, was uncovered at the start of the 20th century. The archaeological analysis of the bath's relationship with the house in which it is located has led Thébert to suggest that it was a later addition to the original construction but he does not propose a date for this event.^[75]

Religious edifices

There is archaeological or epigraphic evidence for more than twenty temples at Dougga; a significant number for a small city. There are archaeological remains and inscriptions proving the existence of eleven temples, archaeological remains of a further eight, and inscriptions referring to another fourteen.^[76] This abundance of religious sites is the result in particular of the philanthropy of wealthy families.^[77]

Temple of Massinissa

The Temple of

The remains are similar to those of the temple in Chemtou^[57] and are evidence of the fact that the political center of the Roman city was in the same place as the Hellenic agora.^[79] The stone remains found in this area seem to belong to several different structures; the exact location of the sanctuary is still open to debate.^[80]

Although it is believed that the sanctuary set Massinissa on par with a god, this is debated by some experts. Gsell believes that a temple to the king would reflect a continuation of eastern and Hellenic practices; Camps builds on this hypothesis, pointing out the lack of any antique sources testifying to anything more than simple expressions of respect by a people vis-à-vis its king.^[81] According to Camps, the temple is only a memorial, a site belonging to a funeral cult. Its construction ten years into Micipsa's reign can be explained by its political symbolism: Micipsa, sole ruler after the death of his brothers Gulussa and Mastanabal, was affirming the unity of his kingdom around the person of the king.^[82]

The Capitol

The Capitol is a Roman temple from the 2nd century, principally dedicated to

Thomas d'Arcos identified the Capitol as a temple of Jupiter in the 17th century. It was the object of further research at the end of the 19th century, led in particular by the doctor Louis Carton in 1893. The walls, executed in opus africanum style, and the entablature of the portico were restored between 1903 and 1910. Claude Poinssot discovered a crypt beneath the cella in 1955. The most recent works were carried out by the Tunisian Institut national du patrimoine between 1994 and 1996.^[84]

The Capitol is exceptionally well preserved, which is a consequence of its inclusion in the Byzantine fortification. A series of eleven stairs lead up to the front portico. The temple front's Corinthian columns are 8 m (26 ft) tall, on top of which is the perfectly preserved pediment. The pediment bears a depiction of emperor Antoninus Pius's elevation to godhood. The emperor is being carried by an eagle.^[84]

The base of the cella still features alcoves for three statues. The middle alcove houses a colossal statue of Jupiter.^[84]

The discovery of the head of a statue of Jupiter has led Poinssot to suggest that the crypt dates from the period of Christianity's triumph over the old religions. St-Amans does not exclude the possibility that the crypt was built at the same time as the Byzantine citadel,^[84] of which the forum and capitol formed the nerve center.

The construction of the Capitol at Dougga occurred at the same time as the construction of other monuments of the same type elsewhere in

• 
  Antoninus Pius' elevation to godhood
• 
  Interior of the cella with the alcoves designed to hold statues
• 
  The Capitol at the start of the 20th century
• 
  The front of the Capitol in 2006
• 
  The Capitol at night

Temple of Mercury

The Temple of

The small Temple of August Piety was built during the reign of

D'Arcos identified the temple in 1631 thanks to an inscription that was still in place at the time. The podium is relatively low (1–1.5 m or 3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in); it can be ascended by a series of seven stairs on the southern side.^[90]

Temple of Minerva

The first Temple of Minerva at Dougga was a gift of the patron of the civitas at the end of the 1st century,^[91] but the more important site dedicated to this divinity is a building which features a temple and an area surrounded by a portico dating from the reign of Antoninus Pius. It was financed through the philanthropy of a priestess of the imperial cult, Julia Paula Laenatiana.^[92] The building was designed to take advantage of the slope on which it stands; the podium is at the level of the roof of the portico and the temple in the strict sense of the word is located outside the surrounding building. The stairs providing access to the temple accentuates the inaccessible nature of the divinity.^[86]

Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany

The Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany is the only edifice dedicated to the

The temple, which is relatively narrow, has an unusual design. It is 41.5 m × 14.2 m (136 ft × 47 ft), and is situated beside the road that descends from the forum to the Aïn Doura Bath. The temple is associated with a triumphal arch over the road. The temple can be accessed via a semi-circular staircase; in each corner of the courtyard in front of the staircase is a reservoir for rain water. The cella inside the sanctuary features six lateral niches which are designed to hold the bases of statues of Apollo, Liber, Neptune, Mercury and of two other gods that can no longer be identified.

The temple can be seen from afar, but passers-by can only see the cella, the foundations of which are decoratively rusticated. Seven columns are spaced along the cella, linking to the lateral door, which opens onto the staircase. The tetrastyle temple is built in Tuscan order in antis.^[94] The temple's design is unusual inasmuch as temples of the imperial cult are generally Corinthian and located in the middle of a vast courtyard with a portico; the Tuscan order was thus quite rare in the provinces.^[93]

The temple therefore bears witness to a desire to construct something that was different from other such buildings, doubtless in response to the constraints created by the terrain. The dedication in the temple sheds light on its construction: the inscription, which has been very precisely dated to AD 214, consecrates the temple to the personification of victory, Victoria, here specifically in connection with the emperor's campaigns in Germany, for the welfare of Caracalla and of his mother Iulia Domna.^[95]

The text recalls the military projects of the son of

The temple occupied what was doubtlessly one of the last free spaces in the vicinity of the forum. The temple's benefactor preferred this site in the city center to those that she owned in the outskirts: the site of the circus or the site where the Temple of Celeste was later built.^[93] Gabinia's family, one of the richest in Dougga, was well placed within Carthage's notables and maintained its power at Dougga, even during the reduction of the local aristocracy in the 3rd century. The terms of Gabinia's will provide evidence of her concern that the family should endure - the annual banquet would keep alive the memory of the family's generosity and emphasize its sociability, while the circus would provide for the pleasure of the most humble of the city's inhabitants.

At the end of the 4th century, the Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany was transformed into a church. The reservoirs in the courtyard were filled in order to provide space for the faithful, while pulpits were added to the cella. The decoration of the cella was also modified.^[93]

Temple of Pluto

Pluto receives particular honor at Dougga as the city's patron divinity, as demonstrated by the Genius Thuggae.^[96]

It is possible that the Temple of Pluto is located near Septimius Severus's triumphal arch in an area of the city that has only been partially excavated as yet,^[97] but this hypothesis is not very firm and is based on the discovery of a bust in a courtyard,^[96] which has been dated by Poinssot to the 2nd or 3rd century. The associated building was excavated in the 1960s but little is known about the manner in which the excavation was conducted and the stabilization work carried out at the site.^[97] A cella with just one niche has been discovered on a podium in the middle of a courtyard and the altar has also been preserved.

An architectural study was carried out between 2000 and 2002, but it did not lead to any excavation work.

Temple of Saturn

Saturn was the successor of the Punic Ba'al Hammon and was the attendant (paredros) of Tanit or Heavenly Juno (Juno Caelestis). During the Roman era, the city of Dougga had at least two sanctuaries dedicated to Saturn.^[98] The evidence for the existence of one of the two derives mostly from inscriptions found in the city.^[99][100] The second temple, which is the one commonly known as the Temple of Saturn at Dougga, has been excavated. The remains of this temple, which are less significant than those of the capitol or the Temple of Juno Caelestis, are of particular interest because of their location. The ruins lie atop a promontory that overlooks the rich cereal valley of the Oued Khalled, 160 m (520 ft) from the theater and outside the bounds of the city. During the excavation works, remains of a temple of Ba'al Hammon, particularly ritual ditches (favissae) containing ex-votos, were discovered. The Roman temple thus replaced an indigenous sanctuary that dated back at least to the 2nd century BC. This sanctuary consisted essentially of a wide open space designed to receive ex-votos and sacrifices.^[101] It was covered over to facilitate the construction of the Temple of Saturn, the ruins of which can still be seen today.

The Roman temple was built during the reign of Septimius Severus. It consists of three cellae, a courtyard with a portico, and a vestibule.^[102] Water from the temple roof was collected in cisterns. An inscription provides details about the temple's construction: it was erected using funds bequeathed in the testament of a notable local resident named Lucius Octavius Victor Roscianus at a cost of at least 150,000 sestertii,^[103] which seems expensive but may be explained by the extent of the earthworks required to give the temple a solid foundation;^[104] these works nonetheless seem to have proven insufficient as work to restore and shore up the edifice appear to have been carried out before it finally fell into ruin.^[105]

Temple of Juno Caelestis

The Temple of Juno Caelestis, which was built on the outskirts of the city, was described in the 17th century and excavated in the 1890s. Significant restoration work was undertaken between 1904 and 1914, and new studies were carried out between 1999 and 2002.^[106]

The temple is dedicated to Heavenly Juno (Juno Caelestis), the successor of the Punic god Tanit. Its well-preserved temenos is demarcated by a wall, a large section of which has been very well preserved. The court is only partially tiled and has two symmetrical doors. A portico with 25 bays runs along the circular section of the temenos. The portico is topped with a frieze depicting the construction of the temple.^[106]

The temple in the strict sense of the word stands on a high podium that can be accessed via a series of eleven steps. It is a

The temple, which was erected between AD 222 and 235,[106] was paid for by a certain Q. Gabinius Rufus Felix, who donated inter alia two silver statues of Juno Caelestis that cost 35,000 sestertii.^[70]

The temenos, which is 52 m (171 ft) in diameter,^[86] is reminiscent of a crescent moon, the symbol of Juno Caelestis.

Dar Lacheb

The purpose of the edifice known as Dar Lacheb (

Dar Lacheb was excavated at the end of the 19th century by Carton and has not been the subject of further works since 1912.^[109] A house that was built nearby re-using antique remains was destroyed at the start of the 20th century.

Dar Lacheb was built between AD 164 and 166, at the same era as the capitol, which is 50 m (160 ft) away. The entrance to the building has been perfectly preserved, as has one of the columns of the entrance porch. The interior consists of a courtyard that was once surrounded with a portico. To the south is the cella of a temple that has been entirely destroyed.^[110]

Victoria Church

The Victoria Church, which stands in the northeast of the site, below the Temple of Saturn, is the only Christian building that has been so far excavated at Dougga. At the end of the 4th century or at the start of the 5th century, the Christian community erected the unusually designed little church over a pagan cemetery.^[111] The small hypogeum is located nearby.

Bishopric

During antiquity, Thugga was also the

Dougga has two networks of cisterns, in the north and in the west, one of which is particularly well preserved. An aqueduct leading to the city, located a short distance from the well-preserved cisterns, is amongst the best preserved examples of this type of structure on the territory of modern-day Tunisia.

The six cisterns of Aïn El Hammam, situated close to the Temple of Juno Caelestis, have a total capacity of 6000 m³ but are in ruins. They were fed by a spring 12 km (7.5 mi) away and an aqueduct constructed during the reign of Commodus and restored in the last quarter of the 4th century CE.^[113]

This site is still used once annually for a festival celebrating Mokhola, who was a female saint and benefactor of Moroccan origin according to local oral tradition^{[114][115][116]} The veneration of Mokhola is accompanied with animal sacrifices. It has been shown that this tradition has pagan origins; the object of veneration was originally the spring, known as fons moccolitanus^[117][118]

The second network of cisterns, the cisterns of Aïn Mizeb, is very well preserved. Located close to the Temple of

Dougga's streets are not laid out as prescribed by the normal theoretical model of a Roman settlement—around a

The center of the city was probably paved; the streets resembled meandering lanes. The city had sewers, as is evidenced by the access stones that are still in place in the streets. At the foot of the hill, there are traces of streets joining with the main road from Carthage to Theveste^[53]

Discoveries made at Dougga

The site at Dougga has offered up numerous works or art, many of which have been removed and placed in museums, most notably the Bardo National Museum in Tunis.

Works on site

Few works of art have been left on site, with the exception of a sculpture of a

A number of heads of emperors have been discovered during the digs at the site. Amongst these, the portrait of Lucius Verus is particularly noteworthy: he is depicted with a generous head of hair, a full beard and a vivacity that makes it one of the most significant statues yet discovered in Roman Africa. This African masterpiece was realized in marble from Carrara and still has traces of color amongst the hairs.^[121]

The Bardo National Museum also houses a togate man (togatus) that dates from the 3rd century. It depicts an aged man, who has a short beard and is dressed in a toga. It seems certain that this is a later work of art reflective of the contemporary taste in art.^[121]

Mosaics

The "butler's mosaic" dating from the middle of the 3rd century features a drinking scene. Two characters are serving two others, who are much smaller, from

The "Ulysses mosaic" is a work inspired by the Odyssey: the Greek hero Odysseus (Ulysses to the Romans) is seen standing on a boat that is decorated with a human head and a palm branch and that has two sails and a battering ram. Ulysses's hands are tied to the main mast so that he will not succumb to the fatal charm of the sirens' music. Ulysses's companions are seated around him, their ears blocked with wax as described in the legend. Three sirens stand at the base of a rocky crag. They are depicted with the upper body of a woman but the wings and legs of a bird. One of them holds a flute, the second a lyre, while the third, who does not carry an instrument, is believed to be the singing siren. In front of Ulysses's boat, there is a small barque with a fisherman holding a lobster, the depiction of which is over-sized. The mosaic has been dated to around AD 260–268; it was discovered in the "House of Ulysses and the Pirates".^[124]

The mosaic "

Neptune and the pirates" originates from the same peristyle as the preceding work. It depicts the punishment of pirates on the Tyrrhenian Sea, merging themes linked to Dionysus and more common marine themes. The god is standing, ready to throw his spear. He is supported by a maenad, a satyr and aged Silenus, who is holding the ship's rudder. A leopard is attacking one of the pirates, who are transformed into dolphins as soon as they recognize the divine nature of their adversary. To the left, genii have boarded another ship, while to the right, fishermen are attempting to catch an octopus with a net.^[125]

Yacoub attributes a protective function to these two scenes, a means of invoking fate, a practice which is probably based on Hellenic tradition.^[126]

The mosaic of the "cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts" from the floor of a

Jupiter's thunderbolts, which Vulcan, seated in front of them, is holding on an anvil. This last element has been lost. The mosaic dates to the end of the 3rd century and was discovered in the "Bath of the Cyclopses".^[127]

• 
  Butler's mosaic.
• 
  Omnia tibi Felicia.
• 
  Ulysses and the sirens.
• 
  Neptune and the pirates.
• 
  Cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts

Works held in other museums

The

Punic-Libyan Inscription shows the same text in both the Punic and the Berber languages

.

See also

• Numidia
• Carthage
• Roman Africa
• Roman colonies in Berber Africa

References

Citations

1. ^ Map of the archaeological site
2. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7
   .
3. ^ Ghaki (2015), p. 67.
4. ^ ^{a b} Gabriel Camps, « Dougga », L'Encyclopédie berbère, tome XVI, éd. Edisud, Aix-en-Provence, 1992, p. 2522
5. ^ Detailed map showing location of Thugga in Roman Africa
6. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie), éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 2004, p. 17
7. ^ ^{a b c} Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine », CRAI, 2003, pp. 131-155
8. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine », pp. 131-143
9. ^ Gabriel Camps, « Dougga », L'Encyclopédie berbère, pp. 2522-2527
10. ^ Gabriel Camps, Les Berbères, mémoire et identité, coll. Babel, éd. Actes Sud/Leméac, Paris/Montréal, 2007, pp. 299-300
11. ^ Gabriel Camps, « Dougga », L'Encyclopédie berbère, p. 2525
12. ^ Gabriel Camps, Les Berbères, mémoire et identité, p. 300
13. ^ Collectif, L'Afrique romaine. 69-439, éd. Atlande, Neuilly-sur-Seine, 2006, p. 309
14. JSTOR 41857007
    .
15. ^ ^{a b} Collectif, L'Afrique romaine. 69-439, p. 310
16. ^ ^{a b} Exploration et collections du site de Dougga (Strabon)^{[permanent dead link]}
17. ^ Portail de Dougga (Ministère de la culture et de la sauvegarde du patrimoine) Archived 2009-04-03 at the Wayback Machine
18. ^ ILAf, 506
19. CIL
    VIII, 14355
20. CIL
    XII, 686
21. ^ Jacques Gascou, La politique municipale de l'Empire romain en Afrique proconsulaire de Trajan à Septime Sévère, éd. CEFR, Rome, 1972, pp. 179-180
22. ^ ^{a b c d} Claude Lepelley, « Thugga au IIIe siècle : la défense de la liberté », Dougga (Thugga). Études épigraphiques, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 1997, pp. 105-114, also available in Claude Lepelley, Aspects de l'Afrique romaine : les cités, la vie rurale, le christianisme, éd. Edipuglia, Bari, 2001, pp. 69-81
23. CIL
    VIII, 26467
24. CIL
    VIII, 26561
25. ^ Paul Veyne, « Le Marsyas colonial et l'indépendance des cités », Revue de philologie, n°35, 1961, pp. 86-98
26. CIL
    VIII, 210 (ILS 5570) à Cillium
27. CIL
    VIII, 26561 ; Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), inscription n° 63
28. ^ Jacques Gascou, op.cit., p. 180
29. ^ L'Année épigraphique, 1963, 94
30. CIL
    VIII, 26582 (ILS 9018) ; Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), inscription n°70
31. ^ ^{a b} Michel Christol, Regards sur l'Afrique romaine, éd. Errance, Paris, 2005, p. 191
32. ^ Michel Christol, op. cit., p. 190
33. CIL
    VIII, 27374 ; inscription revisted and commented by Jacques Gascou, « Conservator pagi (d'après l'inscription de Thugga CIL VIII, 27374) », Dougga (Thugga). Études épigraphiques, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 1997, pp. 97-104
34. ^ Michel Christol, op. cit., p. 195
35. ^ Michel Christol, « De la liberté recouvrée d’Uchi Maius à la liberté de Dougga » Revue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes, tome LXXVIII, 2004, pp. 13-42
36. ^ ^{a b} Hédi Slim et Nicolas Fauqué, La Tunisie antique. De Hannibal à saint Augustin, éd. Mengès, Paris, 2001, p. 153
37. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, éd. Agence de mise en valeur du patrimoine et de promotion culturelle, Tunis, 2008, p. 41
38. ^ ^{a b c} Jean-Claude Golvin, L'antiquité retrouvée, éd. Errance, Paris, 2003, p. 99
39. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, pp. 64-66
40. ^ Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1 « Monuments publics », éd. Picard, Paris, 1996, p. 455
41. ^ ^{a b c} Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 27
42. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 336
43. ISBN 978-2-7427-6922-3
44. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 62
45. ^ Gabriel Camps, Les Berbères, mémoire et identité, p. 90
46. ^ ^{a b} Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 2 « Maisons, palais, villas et tombeaux », éd. Picard, Paris, 2001, p. 417
47. ^ British Museum Collection
48. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 74
49. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p 75
50. ^ The Latin texts found on these sepulchres have been collated and published in Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin [sous la dir. de], Mourir à Dougga. Recueil des inscriptions funéraires, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 2002
51. ISBN 2-910023-46-X
52. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 18
53. ^ ^{a b} Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 70
54. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 58
55. ^ Hédi Slim et Nicolas Fauqué, op. cit., p. 156
56. ^ ^{a b} Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, p. 228
57. ^ ^{a b} Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 32
58. ^ Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, pp. 290-291
59. ^ Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, pp. 293-294
60. ^ "Projet de restauration et de mise en valeur du théâtre romain de Dougga (Institut national du patrimoine)" (PDF).^{[permanent dead link]}
61. ^ Guy Rachet, Dictionnaire de l'archéologie, éd. Robert Laffont, Paris, 1994, p. 296
62. ^ CIL, VIII, 26546 et 26650
63. ^ ILAf, 527, cité par Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, p. 354
64. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), figure n°15
65. ^ ^{a b} Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), p. 41
66. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 61
67. ^ ^{a b c} Yvon Thébert, Thermes romains d'Afrique du Nord et leur contexte méditerranéen, éd. École française de Rome, Rome, 2003, p. 179
68. ^ See the debate in Yvon Thébert, Thermes romains d'Afrique du Nord et leur contexte méditerranéen, éd. École française de Rome, Rome, 2003, p. 177
69. ^ Michel Christol, op. cit., p. 197
70. ^ ^{a b} Gabriel Camps, « Dougga », L'Encyclopédie berbère, p. 2526
71. ^ ^{a b} Yvon Thébert, op. cit., p. 177
72. ^ Yvon Thébert, op. cit., p. 178
73. ^ According to a M. Bouhlila's hypothesis, cited in Yvon Thébert, Thermes romains d'Afrique du Nord et leur contexte méditerranéen, éd. École française de Rome, Rome, 2003, p. 175
74. ^ ^{a b} Yvon Thébert, op. cit., p. 176
75. ^ Yvon Thébert, op. cit., p. 180
76. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, « Le temple de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla à Dougga », L'Afrique du Nord antique et médiévale, actes du VIIIe colloque d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'Afrique du Nord (8-13 mai 2000 à Tabarka), Tunis, 2003, p. 447
77. ISBN 2-910023-46-X
78. ^ RIL, 2
79. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 44
80. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 46
81. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 47
82. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., pp. 48-49
83. ^ Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, pp. 192-193
84. ^ ^{a b c d} Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 283
85. ^ Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, p. 193
86. ^ ^{a b c} Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1, p. 197
87. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 329
88. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 23
89. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 24
90. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 346
91. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 47
92. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 60
93. ^ ^{a b c d} Véronique Brouquier-Reddé, « La place du sanctuaire de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla dans la typologie de l'architecture religieuse païenne de l'Afrique romaine », L'Afrique du Nord antique et médiévale, actes du VIIIe colloque d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'Afrique du Nord (8-13 mai 2000 à Tabarka), Tunis, 2003, pp. 457-470
94. ^ ^{a b} Mustapha Khanoussi, « Le temple de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla à Dougga », pp. 447-456
95. CIL
    VIII, 26650 ; Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), inscription n°39
96. ^ ^{a b} Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 71
97. ^ ^{a b} Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 370
98. ^ Marcel Le Glay, Saturne africain. Monuments I, éd. De Boccard, Paris, 1961, pp. 207-212
99. ^ L'Année épigraphique, 1914, 173
100. ^ Marcel Le Glay, op. cit., inscription n°2, p. 212
101. ^ Marcel Le Glay, op. cit., p. 210
102. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 15
103. ^ Marcel Le Glay, op. cit., inscription n°5, p. 215
104. ^ Marcel Le Glay, op. cit., p. 211
105. ^ Marcel Le Glay, op. cit., p. 212
106. ^ ^{a b c} Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 275
107. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., pp. 275-277
108. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 310
109. ^ Sophie Saint-Amans, op. cit., p. 308
110. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 49
111. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 17
112. ^ Titular Episcopal See of Thugga.
113. ^ For the dedication, see L'Année épigraphique, 2000, 1726, translated in Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 57
114. ^ For a record of the tradition, see Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, pp. 56-57
115. ^ Cyrielle Le Moigne, « La vie secrète des ruines de Dougga », GEO, hors-série « Tunisie. Ses trésors méconnus », octobre 2008, pp. 40-41
116. ^ Photos du rite de Mokhola (Images de Tunisie)
117. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 57
118. ^ Azedine Beschaouch, « Épigraphie et ethnographie. D’une fête populaire de Dougga, en Tunisie, à la dédicace de l’aqueduc de Thugga, en Afrique romaine », CRAI, 2000, vol. 144, n°4, pp. 1173-1182
119. ^ Gabriel Camps, « Dougga », L'Encyclopédie berbère, p. 2527
120. ^ Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, p. 59
121. ^ ^{a b} Nayla Ouertani, « La sculpture romaine », La Tunisie, carrefour du monde antique, éd. Faton, Paris, 1995, p. 95
122. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, Splendeurs des mosaïques de Tunisie, éd. Agence nationale du patrimoine, Tunis, 1995, pp. 241-243
123. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, op. cit., pp. 313-314
124. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, op. cit., pp. 171-172
125. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, op. cit., pp. 173-174
126. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, op. cit., p. 174
127. ^ Mohamed Yacoub, op. cit., p. 181

Bibliography

• Ghaki, Mansour (2015), "Toponymie et Onomastique Libyques: L'Apport de l'Écriture Punique/Néopunique" (PDF), La Lingua nella Vita e la Vita della Lingua: Itinerari e Percorsi degli Studi Berberi, Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi, Naples: Unior, pp. 65–71,
  ISSN 2283-5636, archived from the original
  (PDF) on 2020-04-28, retrieved 2018-11-03. (in French)

Further reading

French

• (in French) Aïcha Ben Abed-Ben Khader, Le musée du Bardo, éd. Cérès, Tunis, 1992
  ISBN 9973-700-83-X
• (in French) Claude Briand-Ponsart et Christophe Hugoniot, L'Afrique romaine. De l'Atlantique à la Tripolitaine. 146 av. J.-C. - 533 apr. J.-C., éd. Armand Colin, Paris, 2005
  ISBN 2-200-26838-6
• (in French)
  ISBN 2-85744-581-4
• (in French)
  ISBN 978-2-7427-6922-3
• (in French)
  ISBN 2-87772-313-5
• (in French) Paul Corbier and Marc Griesheimer, L'Afrique romaine. 146 av. J.-C. - 439 apr. J.-C., éd. Ellipses, Paris, 2005
  ISBN 2-7298-2441-3
• (in French) Jacques Gascou, La politique municipale de l'empire romain en Afrique proconsulaire de Trajan à Septime Sévère, éd. CEFR, Rome, 1972
• (in French) Jean-Claude Golvin, L'antiquité retrouvée, éd. Errance, Paris, 2003
  ISBN 2-87772-266-X
• (in French) Pierre Gros, L'architecture romaine du début du IIIe siècle à la fin du Haut-Empire, tome 1 « Monuments publics », éd. Picard, Paris, 1996
  ISBN 2-7084-0533-0
• (in French) Christophe Hugoniot, Rome en Afrique. De la chute de Carthage aux débuts de la conquête arabe, éd. Flammarion, Paris, 2000
  ISBN 2-08-083003-1
• (in French) Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine », CRAI (Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres), 2003, pp. 131–155
• (in French) Mustapha Khanoussi, Dougga, éd. Agence de mise en valeur du patrimoine et de promotion culturelle, Tunis, 2008
  ISBN 978-9973-954-33-6
• (in French) Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga (Thugga). Études épigraphiques, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 1997
• (in French) Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin, Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles), éd. Ausonius/Institut national du patrimoine, Bordeaux/Tunis, 2000
• (in French) Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin [sous la dir. de], Mourir à Dougga. Recueil des inscriptions funéraires, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 2002
• (in French)
  ISBN 2-7084-0751-1
• (in French) Édouard Lipinski [sous la dir. de], Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique, éd. Brépols, Paris, 1992
  ISBN 2-503-50033-1
• (in French) Ammar Mahjoubi, Villes et structures de la province romaine d'Afrique, éd. Centre de publication universitaire, Tunis, 2000
  ISBN 9973-937-95-3
• (in French) Guillemette Mansour, Tunisie, Musée à ciel ouvert, éd. Dad, Tunis, 2007 (deuxième édition)
  ISBN 978-9973-51-213-0
• (in French) Sophie Saint-Amans, Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie), éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 2004
  ISBN 2-910023-46-X
• (in French) Hédi Slim et Nicolas Fauqué, La Tunisie antique. De Hannibal à saint Augustin, éd. Mengès, Paris, 2001
  ISBN 2-85620-421-X
• (in French)
  ISBN 2-7283-0398-3
• (in French) Mohamed Yacoub, Splendeurs des mosaïques de Tunisie, éd. Agence nationale du patrimoine, Tunis, 1995
  ISBN 9973-917-23-5
• (in French) Collectif, La Tunisie, carrefour du monde antique, éd. Faton, Paris, 1995
• (in French) Collectif, L'Afrique romaine. 69-439, éd. Atlande, Neuilly-sur-Seine, 2006
  ISBN 2-35030-002-1
• (in French) Il était une fois, Dougga...Tukka...ou...Thugga la Romaine, éd. Alyssa, Tunis, 1993

Other languages

• (in Italian) Associazione storica Sant' Agostino. Africa romana: Douggha. Ed. Cassago Brianza. C. Brianza-Italy, 2009 ( Thugga la romana)
• (in German) Mustapha Khanoussi et Volker Michael Strocka, THVGGA I. Grundlagen und Berichte, éd. Philipp von Zabern, Mayence, 2002
  ISBN 3-8053-2892-3
• (in English) Mustapha Khanoussi, Stefan Ritter et Philipp von Rummel, « The German-Tunisian project at Dougga. First results of the excavations south of the Maison du Trifolium », Antiquités africaines, vol. 40, 2004–2005, pp. 43–66
• (in German) Rainer Stutz, THVGGA II. Drei Hanghäuser in Thugga : maison des trois masques, maison du labyrinthe, maison de Dionysos et d'Ulysse, éd. Philipp von Zabern, Mayence, 2007
  ISBN 3-8053-3758-2

External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Dougga.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dougga.

• Portail sur le site de Dougga et sa région (in French)
• Étude de l’architecture religieuse de Dougga (Ministère français des affaires étrangères) Archived 2011-01-01 at the Wayback Machine (in French)
• Ausgrabungen in Thugga (Archäologisches Institut Freiburg) (in German)
• Thugga University of Freiburg (in German)
• Dougga: Roman Ruins Archived 2006-01-30 at the Wayback Machine Lexicorient
• Dougga Site UNESCO World Heritage
• Dougga information Dougga information
• Photo Dougga photo
• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Thugga" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.