Thuja plicata
Thuja plicata | |
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An old tree in Vancouver | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Gymnospermae |
Division: | Pinophyta |
Class: | Pinopsida |
Order: | Cupressales
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Family: | Cupressaceae |
Genus: | Thuja |
Species: | T. plicata
|
Binomial name | |
Thuja plicata | |
Range of T. plicata in the Pacific Northwest |
Thuja plicata is a large
Description
Thuja plicata is a large to very large tree, ranging up to 45 to 70 metres (150 to 230 feet) tall and 2.4 to 7 m (8 to 23 ft) in trunk diameter,[5][6][7] larger than any other species in its genus.[8] The trunk swells at the base and has shallow roots.[5] The bark is thin, gray-brown, and fissured into vertical bands.[5] Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top, where light can reach the leaves.[9] As the tree ages, the top is damaged by wind and replaced by inferior branches.[5] The species is long-lived; some trees can live well over a thousand years, with the oldest verified aged 1,460.[6][7]
The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like leaves in opposite pairs, with successive pairs at 90 degrees to each other. The foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below; they emit a strong aroma reminiscent of pineapple when crushed. The individual leaves are 1 to 4 millimetres (1⁄32 to 5⁄32 in) long and 1 to 2 mm (1⁄32 to 3⁄32 in) broad on most foliage sprays but up to 12 mm (1⁄2 in) long on strong-growing lead shoots.[6][7] The foliage of individual branchlets turns orange-brown before falling off in autumn.[5] Branches growing in full sunlight produce denser foliage with more overlap, while shaded branches grow more horizontally, with less self-overlap.[10]
The cones are slender, 10 to 18 mm (3⁄8 to 11⁄16 in) long, and 4 to 5 mm (5⁄32 to 3⁄16 in) broad, with 8 to 12 (rarely 14) thin, overlapping scales. They are green to yellow-green, ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination, and open at maturity to shed the seeds. The seeds are 4 to 5 mm (5⁄32 to 3⁄16 in) long and 1 mm (1⁄32 in) broad, with a narrow papery wing down each side. The pollen cones are 3 to 4 mm (1⁄8 to 5⁄32 in) long, red or purple at first, and shed yellow pollen in spring.[6][7]
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Leaves
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pollen cones
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Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest
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Wood specimen
Chemistry
The
Taxonomy
Thuja plicata is one of two Thuja species native to North America, the other being
A 2008 study found that western redcedar populations in coastal areas of Washington and Oregon are more genetically variable than populations in the Rocky Mountains and coastal British Columbia, indicating that the species most likely spread throughout its current range from a single
Etymology
The species name plicata derives from the Latin word plicāre and means 'folded in plaits' or 'braided,' a reference to the pattern of its small leaves.[9]
Most authorities, both in Canada
One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word xepá:y,[31] from the roots xíp, meaning 'scratch' or 'line', and á:y, 'bark';[32] the former root may be in reference to both the lined or "folded/braided" appearance of the bark and the tree's ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork. It is called x̱ápay̓ay in the Squamish language.[33] Further south, in the Lushootseed language, the root for red cedar is x̌payʔ and x̌payʔac refers to a red cedar tree.[34]
Distribution and habitat
Thuja plicata is among the most widespread trees in the
Western redcedar grows on many types of soils.
Western redcedar is less cold-tolerant than many conifer species that it shares its range with and is vulnerable to frost damage in late spring and early fall. Its northern range limit in Southeast Alaska and its upper elevational limits on Vancouver Island are controlled by temperature. In Southeast Alaska, it is absent from areas with mean summer temperatures less than 11 °C (52 °F). It does not grow in areas of coastal British Columbia with minimum temperatures of less than −30 °C (−22 °F), although some interior populations experience colder temperatures.[29]
It has been introduced to other temperate zones, including further north in Alaska, western Europe, Australia (at least as far north as Sydney), New Zealand,[39][40] and higher elevations of Hawaii.[41] The species was described as invasive in Great Britain by a 2004 survey,[42] although it is not listed as such by the United Kingdom Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as of September 2022.[43] Its presence has also been recorded in Poland,[42] where it has been identified as a potentially problematic exotic species in the Białowieża Forest.[44]
Ecology
Use by wildlife
Western redcedar provides cover for bears, raccoons, skunks, and other animals which nest inside trunk cavities. It is used as a nest tree by cavity-nesting bird species such as
The foliage, especially that of saplings, is an important food source year-round for
Forest succession
Western redcedar appears in all stages of forest succession, but as one of the most shade-tolerant species in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest it is considered to be a climax species along with western hemlock.[30] It will readily establish and grow in the shade of other, less shade-tolerant species such as red alder (Alnus rubra), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), or Douglas-fir, and prevent seedlings of those species from establishing themselves in its shade. However, western hemlock and Pacific silver fir are more tolerant of shade.[5]
A 2010 study found that Thuja plicata growing in old-growth forests 300 to 700 metres (980 to 2,300 ft) above sea level in the
On northeastern Vancouver Island, western redcedar grows along with western hemlock in relatively open-canopied forests with an understory dominated by salal (Gaultheria shallon). Another type of forest characterized by dense stands of western hemlock and Pacific silver fir with sparse understory vegetation also occurs in the area. The two forest types occur in areas with very similar environmental conditions and are separated by sharp boundaries, often less than 10 metres (33 ft) wide. Western redcedar recruitment is nearly absent in the western hemlock-Pacific silver fir forest type, and there is no evidence of a transitional stage between the two types. It has been hypothesized that, once established, these forest types are self-sustaining and are unlikely to change unless a major disturbance occurs.[53]
Fire ecology
It is considered to have low to moderate fire resistance, as its thin bark, shallow roots, low dense branching habit and flammable foliage confer little protection. Smaller trees are commonly killed by fire, but larger specimens often survive due to their size if they are not completely girdled. The intervals between fires within western redcedar stands tend to be very long, from 50 up to 350 years or more.[30]
Pathology
Western redcedar shows susceptibility of varying degrees to the following soil pathogens:
P. sericeomollis is responsible for brown cubical butt and pocket rot of cedar. It is the second-most common cause of decay in Western redcedar following P. weirii. Rather than forming a single column of decay in the heartwood, P. sericeomollis tends to cause rings or pockets of decay in the lower bole.[55]
While Western redcedar is a host to P. weirii, the fungus which causes the disease laminated root rot, it is rated as resistant while other conifers are rated as highly susceptible or susceptible.[56] P. weirii in Western redcedar expresses as a butt rot.[56]
In addition to P. weirii, western redcedar is also less susceptible to H. annosum and A. ostoyae than other conifer species.
Cedar leaf blight
Western redcedar foliage can become infected by the
Insect pathogens
Thuja plicata is a host to several destructive insect species such as the
Cedar dieback attributed to climate change
"Uncommonly hot, dry weather" in coastal Washington State, beginning in 2015, has been attributed as the underlying cause of a large dieback of this species that could not otherwise be attributed to any "killer pest or known pathogen."[65]
Cultivation
Like its relative
- Cultivars
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
Uses
In indigenous societies
Western redcedar is considered the Tree of Life by many of the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest, as the tree gave them everything that they needed for life – food, water (in the form of water tight woven cedar bark baskets), clothing, medicine, transportation (they made their canoes from the cedar tree), shelter (boards of wood from the cedar tree were used to build their long houses), and spirituality (in that the boughs were used in many ceremonies).[72][page needed] Some northwest coast tribes refer to themselves as "people of the Red Cedar" because of their extensive dependence on the tree for basic materials. The wood has been used for constructing housing and totem poles, and crafted into many objects, including masks, utensils, boxes, boards, instruments, canoes, vessels, houses, and ceremonial objects. Western redcedar is also associated with a long tradition of curing and cooking fish over the open fire. Roots and bark are used for baskets, bowls, ropes, clothing, blankets, and rings.[73][74]
A huge number of archaeological finds point to the continuous use of redcedar wood in native societies. Woodworking tools dating between 8,000 and 5,000 years ago, such as carved antlers, were discovered in
Western redcedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast (British Columbia,
A legend amongst the
Tools
The wood was worked primarily with the
Excavations done at
Wood
Harvesting western redcedar required some ceremony and included propitiation of the tree's spirits as well as those of the surrounding trees. In particular, many people specifically requested the tree and its brethren not to fall or drop heavy branches on the harvester,[81] a situation which is mentioned in a number of different stories of people who were not sufficiently careful. Some professional loggers of Native American descent have mentioned that they offer quiet or silent propitiations to trees which they fell, following in this tradition.
Felling of large trees such as western redcedar before the introduction of steel tools was a complex and time-consuming art. Typically the bark was removed around the base of the tree above the buttresses. Then some amount of cutting and splitting with stone adzes and mauls would be done, creating a wide triangular cut. The area above and below the cut would be covered with a mixture of wet moss and clay as a firebreak. Then the cut would be packed with tinder and small kindling and slowly burned. The process of cutting and burning would alternate until the tree was mostly penetrated through, and then careful tending of the fire would fell the tree in the best direction for handling. This process could take many days. A constant rotation of workers was involved to keep the fires burning through night and day, often in a remote and forbidding location.[82]
Once the tree was felled, the work had only just begun, as it then had to be stripped and dragged down to the shore. If the tree was to become canoes, then it would often be divided into sections and worked into rough canoe shapes before transport. If it were to be used for a totem pole or building materials, it would be towed in the round to the village.[83] Many trees are still felled in this traditional manner for use as totem poles and canoes, particularly by artists who feel that using modern tools is detrimental to the traditional spirit of the art. Non-traditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards, a practice that is commonly followed by most working in smaller sizes such as for masks and staves.
Because felling required such an extraordinary amount of work, if only planks for housing were needed, these would be split from the living tree. The bark was stripped and saved, and two cuts were made at the ends of the planking. Then wedges would be pounded in along the sides and the planks slowly split off the side of the tree.[84] Trees which have been so harvested are still visible in some places in the rainforest, with obvious chunks taken off of their sides. Such trees usually continue to grow perfectly well, since redcedar wood is resistant to decay. Planks are straightened by a variety of methods, including weighing them down with stones, lashing them together with rope, or forcing them between a line of stakes.[85]
Redcedar wood is used to make huge
Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength. They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line, nets,[5] rope cores, twine, and other purposes where bark cord was not strong enough or might fray. Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples, though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above.
Bark
At the right time of year, the bark is easily removed from live trees in long strips. It is harvested for use in making mats, rope and cordage, basketry, rain hats, clothing, and other soft goods. The harvesting of bark must be done with care, as stripping too much bark will kill the tree. To prevent this, the harvester usually only harvests from trees that have not been stripped before.[88] After harvesting, the tree is not used for bark again, although it may later be felled for wood. Stripping bark is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree above any buttresses, after which the bark is peeled upwards. To remove bark high up, a pair of platforms strung on rope around the tree are used and the harvester climbs by alternating between them for support. Since western redcedars lose their lower branches as all tall trees do in the rainforest, the harvester may climb 10 m (33 ft) or more into the tree by this method. The harvested bark is folded and carried in backpacks.[89] It can be stored for quite some time as mold does not grow on it and is moistened before unfolding and working. It is then split lengthwise into the required width and woven or twisted into shape. Bark harvesting was mostly done by women, despite the danger of climbing ten meters in the air, because they were the primary makers of bark goods.[90]
Today bark rope making is a lost art in many communities, although it is still practiced for decoration or art in a few places. Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or practical purposes. In recent years there has been a revival of cedar weaving in some communities, and along with it, new forms of cedar bark products. For example, in some recent weddings cedar roses are used to decorate the tables.
Timber
The soft red-brown timber has a tight, straight grain and few knots. It is valued for its distinct appearance, aroma, and its high natural resistance to decay, being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts, decking,
Its light weight, strength, and dark, warm sound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards, particularly among European guitar builders such as Lowden and Furch.
Western redcedar wood is export-restricted in the United States.[92] The tree is highly allergenic and woodworkers or
Essential oil
The
Other uses
It is also widely used throughout Europe and America for making beehive components.
Its bark has been studied for applications in polyurethane.[97]
Used in the construction of windows and doors (joinery grade timber).
Notable specimens
The largest living specimen is the
A redcedar over 71 m (233 ft) tall, 4.5 m (15 ft) in diameter, and over 700 years old stood in
The Giant Cedar Stump is an ancient redcedar turned roadside attraction in Snohomish County, Washington.[107]
See also
References
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Works cited
- Bitner, Richard L. (2007). Conifers for Gardens: an Illustrated Encyclopedia. United Kingdom: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-830-3.
- Chambers, Kenton L. (1993). "Thuja plicata". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
- Chedgy, Russell J.; Lim, Young Woon & Breuil, Colette (2009). "Effects of leaching on fungal growth and decay of western redcedar (Thuja plicata)". PMID 19483786.
- DeCapua, Sarah (2010). The Tlingit. First Americans. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark. ISBN 978-0-7614-4135-9.
- Dill, J. Gregory (2006). Myth, Fact, And Navigators' Secrets: Incredible Tales of the Sea And Sailors. Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-879-0.
- Farjon, A. (2005). Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys. ISBN 1-84246-068-4.
- Gardner, J. A. F. (1963). The Chemistry and Utilization of Western Red Cedar. Ottawa, Ontario: Department of Forestry. OCLC 65814710.
- Hill, Anthony (1985). Antique Furniture in Australia. Victoria, British Columbia: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-80319-7.
- McNeese, Tim (2002). Early North America. St. Louis, Missouri: Milliken Publishing. ISBN 0-7877-0527-6.
- Miller, Mike (2008). Alaska's Southeast: Touring the Inside Passage (11th ed.). Guilford, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press. ISSN 1545-1941.
- Pritzker, Barry M. (1998). Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0-87436-836-7.
- Stewart, Hilary (1984). Cedar: Tree of Life to the Northwest Coast Indians. Vancouver, British Columbia: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0-88894-437-3.
- Van Pelt, Robert (2001). Forest Giants of the Pacific Coast. Global Forest Society and University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98140-7.
- Zsolt Debreczy; Istvan Racz (2012). Kathy Musial (ed.). Conifers Around the World (1st ed.). DendroPress. p. 1089. ISBN 978-963-219-061-7. Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
External links
- Media related to Thuja plicata at Wikimedia Commons
- "Thuja plicata". Plants for a Future.
- "Thuja plicata". Calflora. Berkeley, California: The Calflora Database.
- Thuja plicata in the CalPhotos photo database, University of California, Berkeley