Tiberius
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AD 41–54 |
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AD 54–68 |
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Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus
Early in his career, Tiberius was happily married to
From the outset, Tiberius had a difficult, resentful relationship with the Senate, and suspected many plots against him. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective and efficient administrator. After the deaths of his nephew Germanicus in AD 19 and his son Drusus in 23, Tiberius became reclusive and aloof. In 26 he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his ambitious praetorian prefect Sejanus, whom he later had executed for treason, and then Sejanus' replacement, Macro. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Germanicus' son Caligula, whose lavish building projects and varyingly successful military endeavours drained much of the wealth that Tiberius had accumulated in the public and Imperial coffers through good management.
Tiberius allowed the worship of his divine Genius in only one temple, in Rome's eastern provinces, and promoted restraint in the empire-wide cult to the deceased Augustus. When Tiberius died, he was given a sumptuous funeral befitting his office, but no divine honours. He came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really wanted to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men".[4][5]
Early life
Family and youth
Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla.[6] Both of his biological parents belonged to the gens Claudia, an ancient patrician family that came to prominence in the early years of the republic.[7] His mother was also a member of the Livii family, an ancient plebeian but prominent family, through the adoption into it of his maternal grandfather.[8] Little is recorded of Tiberius' early life. In 39 BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, remarried to Octavian, later known as Augustus. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.[9] In 32 BC, Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra. In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.[10]
Succession question
In 23 BC, Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into even more civil conflict. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus' heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that
Civil and military career
Early career and marriage
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius went east to join Augustus.[16] The Parthian Empire had previously captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC) and, after negotiations with Parthia's King Phraates IV, either Augustus[16] or Tiberius,[17] or perhaps both together, were able to reclaim them for Rome. Tiberius then led a sizeable force into Armenia, presumably to establish it as a Roman client state and end the threat it posed on the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.[13]
Tiberius married
Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus' request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married, and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour. Suetonius claims that when Tiberius ran into Vipsania again, he followed her home crying and begging forgiveness.[18] Soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again.[21] Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus' death in 9 BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania, both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.
Military campaigns
In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a
Midlife
Retirement to Rhodes
In 6 BC, while on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes.[23] The motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear.[24] Some historians have speculated that Tiberius and Drusus were only ever intended as caretakers, and would have been swept aside once Julia's two sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius, were adopted as Augustus' heirs and came of age.[25] The promiscuous, and very public behaviour of his unhappily married wife, Julia,[26] may have also played a part.[22] Tacitus understood this to be Tiberius' innermost reason for moving to Rhodes, a reflection of his hatred of Julia and his longing for Vipsania.[27] Tiberius, forbidden to see the woman he loved, found himself married to a woman he loathed, and publicly humiliated by her nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum.[28]
Whatever Tiberius' motives, his withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive.[28] Somewhat melodramatic stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness.[28] Tiberius' response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes.[29] Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.[30]
Heir to Augustus
With Tiberius' departure, succession rested solely on Augustus' two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more.
Thus, when in AD 13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus' own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval.[39]
However, according to
Emperor
Early reign
The Senate convened on 17 September, to validate Tiberius's position as Princeps and, as it had done with Augustus before, grant him its powers.[47][48] Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps, but he lacked the titles of Augustus and Pater Patriae ("Father of the country"), and refused the Civic Crown.[c] Like Augustus before him, Tiberius may have sought to represent himself as a reluctant yet devoted public servant, no more than an ordinary citizen who wanted to serve the state and people to the best of his ability,[49] but his refusal of these titular, quasi-religious honours, and his reluctance to accept the full powers of a princeps were taken as insults to the elite who offered them; signs of hypocrisy, not humility. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".[50][51] Antagonism between Tiberius and his senate seems to have been a feature of his rule.[52] In his first few years as emperor, Tiberius seems to have wanted the Senate to act alone, with no reference to him or his responsibilities as "first Senator".[53] His direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debates on what he actually meant, rather than passing his legislation.[54]
Germanicus
The Roman legions in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised to them by Augustus, and showed early signs of mutiny when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming.[55]
In AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, like Agrippa and Tiberius before him. This was interpreted as a sign that he would be Tiberius' successor;[61] but Germanicus died just over a year later, having accused Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.[62]
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius.[63] Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.[64][65]
In AD 22, Tiberius shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus,[66] and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus died in mysterious circumstances,[67][68] and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. In AD 26, Tiberius moved to an imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure (otium) and a Hellenised lifestyle.[69][70]
Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in Rome
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in the eyes of Tiberius, who thereafter refers to him as his Socius Laborum (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city,[72][73] and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.[70]
Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla, though under pressure quickly withdrew the request.[74] While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius,[75] the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that.[76]
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, Caligula, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla were the only survivors.[77]
In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia,[78] and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps, or as a possible regent.[78] Livilla was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years.[79]
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula.[80] Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.[80]
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro.[81]
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. As Tacitus vividly describes,
"Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them."[82]
However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138:
"In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius' reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the emperor's tyranny."[83]
While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, cruelty,[84] and most of all his paranoia.[85] While heavily sensationalised,[86] Suetonius' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule.
Final years
The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius' image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius' withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of the Princeps. Suetonius records that he became paranoid,[85] and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. During this period there was a short invasion by Parthia, and incursions on Roman territories by Dacian and Germanic tribes.[87]
Little was done to plan or secure Tiberius' succession. The Julians and their supporters were diminished in numbers and political influence, thanks to Sejanus, and Tiberius' immediate heirs were dead. Caligula, the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius' own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, were possibly candidates.[88] However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula a quaestor, and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.[89]
Death
Tiberius died in
After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honours that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the
In his
Legacy
Historiography
Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler.
Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail:
Publius Cornelius Tacitus
The most detailed account of this period was written by
Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal";[102] he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy.[90] Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, corruption, and the growing
"His character too had its distinct periods. It was a bright time in his life and reputation, while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue, as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his mother lived, he was a compound of good and evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace, when fear and shame being cast off, he simply indulged his own inclinations."[90]
Suetonius Tranquillus
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus' own letters.[84]
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary Tacitus, and delves into Tiberius' numerous alleged debaucheries while at Capri.[84] Nevertheless, Suetonius praises Tiberius' actions during his early reign, emphasising his modesty.[104]
Velleius Paterculus
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from
Gospels, Jews, and Christians
According to the Gospels, Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed during the reign of Tiberius, by the authority of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea province. Luke 3:1,[108] states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of Tiberius' reign. The city of Tiberias, on the Western shore of the Sea of Galilee (also known as the Sea of Tiberias) was named thus by Herod Antipas in Tiberius's honour.[109] It is referred to in John 6:23[110] and John 6:1.[111] The so-called "tribute penny" referred to in the Gospel of Matthew[112] and the Gospel of Mark[113] is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius.[114][115][116]
During Tiberius' reign, Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began
The early Christian Church's view of Tiberius has generally been favourable. The 2nd-3rd Century Christian
Archaeology
Possible traces remain of renovations by Tiberius in the
Tiberius' palace in Rome was on the Palatine Hill; its ruins still stand. Tiberius built a temple in Rome to the deified Augustus, and restored the theatre of Pompey,[125][126] these works were not finished until the reign of Caligula.[127] The remains of Tiberius' villa at Sperlonga include a grotto, where the fragmentary Sperlonga sculptures were found. The hill-top Villa Jovis retreat at Capri has been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas,[70] of which the Villa Jovis was the largest.
Tiberius refused to be officially worshipped as a living god. He promoted restraint in the official, empire-wide cult to the divinised Augustus, and established a priesthood, the Sodales Augustales, to administer its rites. He allowed a single temple to honour both his own genius and that of the Senate, at Smyrna.[128][129]
Popular culture
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. The following is a list of appearances Tiberius made in popular culture.
- He appears in the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves,[130] and the consequent BBC television series adaptation, where he is portrayed by George Baker.[131]
- George R. R. Martin, the author of A Song of Ice and Fire series, has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.[132]
- In the 1968 ITV historical drama The Caesars, Tiberius (by André Morell) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in I, Claudius.
- He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry, in which he is played by Max von Sydow. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben-Hur (played by George Relph in his last starring role),[133] and in A.D. (played by James Mason).
- He was featured in The Robe (1953), played by Ernest Thesiger.
- He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula, portrayed by Peter O'Toole.
- He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell's 1958 novel, Dear and Glorious Physician, a biography of St Luke the Evangelist, author of the third canonical Gospel.
- He was played by Kenneth Cranham in A.D. The Bible Continues.
- In the TV series Roman Empire, Tiberius was portrayed by Craig Walsh-Wrightson. In the 2021 TV series Domina, he was played by Earl Cave.
- The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in Arthur Machen's 1895 novel The Three Impostors.
Children and family
Tiberius was married twice, with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood:
- Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (16 –11 BC)
- Drusus Julius Caesar (14 BC – AD 23) (Had Issue)
- Julia the Elder, only daughter of Augustus (11 – 6 BC)
- Infant son, (dubbed "Tiberillus" by modern historians), died in infancy.
- Infant son, (dubbed "
In AD 4 Tiberius adopted his nephew
See also
- Caesar cut
- Clutorius Priscus
- Julio-Claudian family tree
- List of Roman emperors
- List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
Notes
- ^ Sometimes referred to as Tiberius I, in reference to the later Eastern emperors Tiberius II Constantine and Tiberius III.
- laurel and oak. It had been awarded to Augustus for "saving the lives of Roman citizens".
- ^ Dio states that Tiberius died on the "twenty-sixth day of March. He had lived seventy-seven years, four months, and nine days, of which time he had been emperor twenty-two years, seven months, and seven days." Dio's calculations are accurate, but the number "26" is a mistake for "16".[92]
- ^ Josephus states that "Tiberius died, after he had reigned twenty-two years, six months, and three days."[93] Tiberius actually ruled 22 years, 6 months, and 25 days reckoning from Augustus' death.
- ^ The 20th-century Canadian historian J.E.A. Crake (1911-1983) said in 1963 at an annual meeting of the Classical Association of Canada that few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events" and that its "combination of legal inconsistency would have inspired a couple of pages of sarcasm from Tertullian."[120]
- ^ According to the Christian History Institute from "A.D. 30 to A.D. 311, a period in which 54 emperors ruled the Empire, only about a dozen took the trouble to harass Christians. Furthermore, not until Decius (249–251) did any deliberately attempt an Empire-wide persecution. Until then, persecution came mainly at the instigation of local rulers, albeit with Rome’s approval."[122]
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2.
- ^ CIL 2, 1660
- ^ CIL 6, 930
- ^ Pliny the Elder, XXVIII.5.23.
- ^ Capes 1897, p. 71.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius, 5.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 1.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 3.
- ^ Levick 1999, p. 15.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 6.
- ^ Southern 1998, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Paterculus, II.94.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Tiberius 9.
- ^ Seager 2005, p. xiv.
- ^ from Africa Italiana 8 (1941), cited in Burns, Jasper (2003) Vipsania on Ara Pacis,
- ^ a b Cassius Dio: Book 54, 7-8.
- ^ Suetonius: Tiberius, 9
- ^ a b Suetonius, Tiberius 7.
- ^ Strabo, 7. I. 5, p. 292[full citation needed]
- ^ Levick 1999, p. 42.
- ^ Seager 2005, p. 20.
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, LV.9.
- ^ Seager 2005, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 10.
- ^ Levick 1999, p. 29.
- ^ Paterculus, II.100.
- ^ Tacitus, I.53.
- ^ a b c Seager 2005, p. 26.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 11.
- ^ Seager 2005, p. 28.
- ^ "Legio V Alaudae". livius.org. September 2010. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 13.
- ^ a b Tacitus, I.3.
- ^ a b c Suetonius, Tiberius 15.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LV.13.
- ^ a b c Suetonius, Tiberius 21.
- JSTOR 3297371.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LV.32.
- ^ Seager 2005, p. xv.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-135-78255-9.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 20.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 100.1..
- ^ Cassius Dio, 56.30..
- ^ Paterculus, II.123.
- ^ Tacitus, I.8.
- ^ Mattingly 1957, p. 14.
- ^ Levick 1999, pp. 68–81. «The senatorial decree of 17 September was to make him Divi fiilius, son of the deified Princeps, and the will imposed the title Augustus... Tiberius' powers lapsed on Augustus' death, required redefinition, or were surrendered on 17 September.».
- ^ Tacitus, I.9–11.
- ^ Seager 2005, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Tacitus, III.65, I.12–13.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 26.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 24.
- ^ Tacitus, III.35, III.53–54.
- ^ Tacitus, III.32, III.52.
- ^ Tacitus, I.16–17, I.31.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LVII.6.
- ^ Tacitus, II.46.
- ^ a b Tacitus, II.41.
- ^ Shotter 2004, pp. 35–37.
- ^ Tacitus, II.26.
- ^ Tacitus, II.43.
- ^ Tacitus, II.71.
- ^ Tacitus, III.16.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 52.
- ^ Tacitus, III.15.
- ^ Tacitus, III.56.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.7–8.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 62.
- S2CID 162308020.
We must imagine Tiberius not as brooding in isolation (though it is true enough he was a difficult man, not to say a grouchy one), but as entertaining visitors, discussing affairs, and taking up at least the more important of the obligations imposed upon him by state and family
- ^ a b c Tacitus, IV.67.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Tiberius 37.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.2.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LVII.21.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.39–41.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.41.
- ^ Tacitus, V.3.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 53–54.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Tiberius 65.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LVII.22.
- ^ JSTOR 293155.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LVIII.10.
- ^ Tacitus, VI.19.
- ISBN 978-1-134-96348-5.
- ^ a b c Suetonius, Tiberius 43, 44, 45.
- ^ a b Suetonius, 60, 62–64.
- ISBN 0-300-03000-2
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 41.
- ^ Tacitus, VI.46.
- ^ Cassius Dio, LVII.23.
- ^ a b c d Tacitus, VI.50–51.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 73.
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, lviii. 28.
- ^ Josephus, The Jewish War II, 9.
- ^ Death of Tiberius: Tacitus Annals 6.50; Dio 58.28.1–4; Suetonius, Tiberius 73 Gaius 12.2–3; Josephus AJ 18.225. Posthumous insults: Suetonius, Tiberius 75.
- ^ Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929). "Mausoleum Augusti". A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 332–336. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 76.
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, LIX.1.
- ^ a b Tacitus, IV.6.
- ^ Suetonius, Caligula 37.
- ^ "Tiberius | Biography, Accomplishments, Facts, & Death". 30 June 2023.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 61.
- ^ Tacitus, I.6.
- ^ Tacitus, I.72, I.74, II.27–32, III.49–51, III.66–69.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 26–32.
- ^ Paterculus, II.94, 103–105, 129–130.
- ^ Paterculus, II.127–128.
- JSTOR 4474933.
- ^ Luke 3:1
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities XVIII.2.3.
- ^ John 6:23
- ^ John 6:1
- ^ Matthew 22:19
- ^ Mark 12:15
- ISBN 1-162-09864-3.
- ISBN 978-1-148-52633-1.
- ISBN 0-486-22763-4.
- ^ ISBN 3-16-149192-0.
- ISBN 9780802842657.
- ^ a b Williamson 1965, p. 75.
- ^ JSTOR 1086690.
- ^ For review of sources on the early Church and Christianity in relation to Roman power-politics, see Barnes, T.D. (November 1968), The Journal of Roman Studies, Volume 58, Issue 1-2, pp. 32-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/299693
- ^ a b "Persecution in the Early Church: A Gallery of the Persecuting Emperors". Christian History Institute. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
- ^ Häuber, Chrystina. "The Horti of Maecenas on the Esquiline Hill in Rome" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
- ^ Wyler, Stéphanie (2013). "An Augustan Trend towards Dionysos: Around the 'Auditorium of Maecenas'". In Bernabe, Alberto; Herrero de Jáuregui, Miguel; San Cristóbal, Ana; Martín Hernández, Raquel (eds.). Redefining Dionysos. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 541–553.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.45, III.72.
- ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 47.
- ^ Suetonius, Caligula 21.
- ISBN 978-0-19-154149-0.
- ^ Tacitus, IV.37–38, IV.55–56.
- ^ "I, Claudius: From the Autobiography of Tiberius Claudius – Robert Graves". Booktalk.org. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
- ^ "BBC Four Drama – I, Claudius". BBC. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
- ^ "Not a Blog: It's the Pits". 21 January 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
- ^ "Emperor Tiberius Caesar (Character)". Imdb.com. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
Bibliography
Primary sources
- Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library.
- Josephus (1737) [c. 96 AD]. "Chapters XVIII". Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by William Whiston. Harvard University Press.
- Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (1914) [c. AD 121]. "Life of Tiberius". The Twelve Caesars. Translated by John Carew Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library.
- The Annals. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Loeb Classical Library.
- Gaius Plinius Secundus (1961) [c. 77 AD]. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham; W.H.S. Jones; and D.E. Eichholz. Harvard University Press.
- Marcus Velleius Paterculus (1924) [c. AD 30]. "Book II". The Roman History. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Loeb Classical Library.
Secondary material
- Capes, William Wolfe (1897). Roman History: The Early Empire. Epochs of Ancient History. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
- Ehrenberg, V.; Jones, A.H.M. (1955). Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Oxford.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 0-415-21753-9.
- Mason, Ernst (1960). Tiberius. New York: Ballantine Books. (Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction author Frederik Pohl)
- Mattingly, Harold (1957). Roman Imperial Civilization. New York: W W Norton & Company Inc. ISBN 0-393-00572-0.
- ISBN 0-416-10710-9.
- Seager, Robin (2005) [1972]. Tiberius (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1528-9.
- Shotter, David (2004) [1992]. Tiberius Caesar (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31946-3.
- Southern, Pat (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16631-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-814859-3.
- Syme, Ronald (1974). "History or Biography: The Case of Tiberius Caesar". JSTOR 4435416.
- Syme, Ronald (1984). "History or Biography: the Case of Tiberius Caesar". Roman Papers. Vol. III. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 937–952. ISBN 0198148399.
- Williamson, G.A. (1965). The History of the Church Eusebius. Dorset Press. ISBN 0-14-044-138-7.
External links
- Fagan, Garrett G. (2001), "Tiberius (A.D. 14–37)", De Imperatoribus Romanis
- "Tiberius (42 BC – 37 AD)" at the BBC
- "Maps of the Roman Empire under Tiberius at Omniatlas.com"