Tibetan independence movement
Tibetan independence movement | |
---|---|
Sovereign state | China |
Capital | Lhasa 31°N 89°E / 31°N 89°E |
Area | |
• Total | 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi) |
Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 7,000,000 (Tibetan people) |
The Tibetan independence movement (
It is principally led by the
The Tibetan independence movement is no longer supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, which ended its Tibetan program after the 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China. Later in the 1970s, the 14th Dalai Lama, who had backed it since 1961, also withdrew his support but now supports The Middle Way Approach.[1][2][3][4]
Historical background
After the Mongol Prince Köden took control of the Kokonor region in 1239, he sent his general Doorda Darqan on a reconnaissance mission into Tibet in 1240. During this expedition the Kadampa monasteries of Rwa-sgreng and Rgyal-lha-khang were burned, and 500 people killed. The death of the Mongol qaghan Ögedei Khan in 1241 brought Mongol military activity around the world temporarily to a halt. Mongol interests in Tibet resumed in 1244, when Prince Köden sent an invitation to the leader of the Sakya sect, to come to his capital and formally surrender Tibet to the Mongols. The Sakya leader arrived in Kokonor with his two nephews Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ('Phags-pa; 1235–80) and Chana Dorje (Phyag-na Rdo-rje; 1239–67) in 1246. This event marked the incorporation of Tibet into the Mongol Empire. Tibet was under administrative rule of the Yuan dynasty until the 1350s. At that point, Tibet regained its independence.
In 1720, the Qing dynasty army entered Tibet in aid of the locals and defeated the invading forces of the Dzungar Khanate; thus began the period of Qing rule of Tibet. Later, the Chinese emperor assigned the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama to be in charge of religious and political matters in Tibet. The Dalai Lama was leader of the area around Lhasa; the Panchen Lama was leader of the area of Shigatse Prefecture.
By the early 18th century, the Qing dynasty had started to send resident commissioners (Ambans) to Lhasa. Tibetan factions rebelled in 1750 and killed the resident commissioners after the central government decided to reduce the number of soldiers to about 100. The Qing army entered and defeated the rebels and reinstalled the resident commissioner. The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2,000. The defensive duties were assisted by a local force which was reorganized by the resident commissioner, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before.
At multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, Green Standard Army troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war.[5] Green Standard Army troops and Manchu Bannermen were both part of the Qing force which fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars.[6] It was said that the Sichuan commander Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of Yue Fei) entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa.[7] According to Mark C. Elliott, after 1728 the Qing used Green Standard Army troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than Bannermen.[8] According to Evelyn S. Rawski, both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet.[9] According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000-strong Tibetan army.[10]
In the mid 19th century, arriving with an Amban, a community of Chinese troops from Sichuan who married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture.[11] Hebalin was the location of where Chinese Muslim troops and their offspring lived, while Lubu was the place where Han Chinese troops and their offspring lived.[12]
In 1904, the
The
The subsequent outbreak of
General Ma Fuxiang, the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission (and also of Hui ethnicity), stated that Tibet was an integral part of the Republic of China.
"Our Party [the Kuomintang] takes the development of the weak and small and resistance to the strong and violent as our sole and most urgent task. This is even more true for those groups which are not of our kind [Ch. fei wo zulei zhe]. Now the peoples [minzu] of Mongolia and Tibet are closely related to us, and we have great affection for one another: our common existence and common honor already have a history of over a thousand years... Mongolia and Tibet's life and death are China's life and death. China absolutely cannot cause Mongolia and Tibet to break away from China's territory, and Mongolia and Tibet cannot reject China to become independent. At this time, there is not a single nation on earth except China that will sincerely develop Mongolia and Tibet."[16]
Annexation
In 1950, the
The Chinese have claimed that most of the population of Tibet at that time were
CIA and MI6 activities in Tibet (1950–1970)
Agents of Western governments had infiltrated
Clandestine military involvement by the U.S. began following the series of uprisings in the eastern Tibetan region of Kham in 1956. Several small groups of Khampa fighters were trained by the CIA camp and then airdropped back into Tibet with supplies. In 1958, with the rebellion in Kham ongoing, two of these fighters, Athar and Lhotse, attempted to meet with the Dalai Lama to determine whether he would cooperate with their activities.[citation needed] However, their request for an audience was refused by the Lord Chamberlain, Phala Thubten Wonden, who believed such a meeting would be impolitic.[citation needed] According to Tsering Shakya, "Phala never told the Dalai Lama or the Kashag of the arrival of Athar and Lhotse. Nor did he inform the Dalai Lama of American willingness to provide aid."[20]
Following a
- Subsidy to the Dalai Lama: US$180,000[24]
- Support of 2,100 Tibetan guerrillas based in Nepal: US$500,000[24]
- Other costs: US$1.06m[24]
- Total: US$1.73m[24]
Positions on the status of Tibet
The status of Tibet before 1950, especially in the period between 1912 and 1950, is largely in dispute between supporters and opponents of Tibetan independence.
According to supporters of Tibetan independence[
On the other hand, opponents[
In addition, as this position argues that no country gave Tibet
Positions on Tibet after 1950
Tibetan exiles generally say that the number that have died in the
The Central Tibetan Administration also says that millions of Chinese immigrants to the TAR are diluting the Tibetans both culturally and through intermarriage.[citation needed] Exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original Tibetan culture to attract tourism, the traditional Tibetan way of life is now irrevocably changed.[citation needed] It is also reported that when Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, visited Lhasa in 1980, he was unhappy when he found out the region was behind neighbouring provinces. Reforms were instituted [citation needed], and since then the central government's policy in Tibet has granted most religious freedoms, but monks and nuns were sometimes imprisoned,[31] and many Tibetans (mostly monks and nuns) fled Tibet yearly.[citation needed]
The government of the PRC claims that the population of Tibet in 1737 was about 8 million. It claims that due to the 'backward' rule of the local theocracy, there was rapid decrease in the next two hundred years and the population in 1959 was only about one million.
The government of the PRC also rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, pointing to rights enjoyed by the
Supporting organisations
Organisations which support the Tibetan independence movement include:
- International Tibet Independence Movement – Located in Indiana, United States. It was formed in March 1995 and is now a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization for informing about Tibetan independence.[35]
- International Tibetan Aid Organization – Located in Amsterdam, Netherlands, this organization was formed in 2004.[citation needed]
However,
Some organisations either support the "Middle Way" or do not adopt a definitive stance on whether they support independence or greater autonomy. Such organisations include:
- Free Tibet Campaign – Located in London, United Kingdom, formed in 1987, stands for the right of Tibetans to determine their own future and for the future of their own country.[38]
- International Tibet Support Network – Located in London, United Kingdom, established in 2000, umbrella organization for Tibet related organization worldwide.[citation needed]
- Shiv Ganga Vidya Mandir, Phaphamau, Allahabad organized a Tibet Freedom Solidarity Rally in Allahabad on 9 April 2016, drawing more than 3000 participants.[39]
Celebrity support, Freedom Concerts and public awareness
The Tibetan independence movement became cause-célèbre in the US and Europe as the words "Free Tibet" and the Tibetan flag gained worldwide fame in the press and public consciousness starting from 1987.[40] The movement gained strength and popular support in the west from 1987 to 2008, until the 2008 Tibetan unrest. The initial spark for the awareness of "Free Tibet" and the Tibetan flag was probably street demonstrations, perhaps specifically the 1986 Ottawa demonstration in Canada.[41]
Eventually, The flag of Tibet and words were printed globally on t-shirts, cushions, mugs, bookmarks, badges, bracelets, bags and other merchandise, and almost all Westerners became aware of the cause of Tibetan independence.
The "Free Tibet" movement is supported by some celebrities, such as Richard Gere and Paris Hilton.[42]
British comedian Russell Brand also occasionally mentions his support for the movement on his BBC Radio 2 show. Richard Gere is one of the most outspoken supporters of the movement and is chairman of the board of directors for the International Campaign for Tibet. Actress Sharon Stone caused significant controversy when she suggested that the 2008 Sichuan earthquake may have been the result of "bad karma," because the Chinese "are not being nice to the Dalai Lama, who is a good friend of mine."[43] The Dalai Lama confirmed that he did not share Stone's views, although he confirmed that he had "met the lady".[44]
U.S. actor and martial artist
The Milarepa Fund is an organisation which organises concerts to give publicity to the Tibetan independence movement. The fund was named after Milarepa, the revered 11th-century Tibetan yogi, who used music to enlighten people. It was originally established to disburse royalties from the Beastie Boys album Ill Communication in 1994, to benefit Tibetan monks who were sampled on two songs. The Milarepa Fund organizers also jointed the Beastie Boys as they headlined the 1994 Lollapalooza Tour. Inspired by this tour, they began to organise a concert to promote Tibetan independence, in the style of Live Aid.
Organized in June 1996, the first concert (in
During the 2008 Liège–Bastogne–Liège cycling race Australian rider Cadel Evans wore an undershirt with 'Free Tibet' printed on it, bringing attention to the movement months before the 2008 Summer Olympics, held in Beijing.[52]
In 2011, an
Further reading
Listed chronologically;
- ISBN 978-0-712-670630
- ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9
- ISBN 978-0-300-154047
See also
- List of active separatist movements
- Tibet under Yuan rule
- Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty
- Tibet under Qing rule
- Patron and priest relationship
- Tibet (1912–51)
- Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet
- Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950
- Secession in China
- Affirmative action in China
- Human rights of ethnic minorities in China
- Boycott Chinese products
- Students for a Free Tibet
- Sinicization of Tibet
- Stateless nation
- Racism in China
- Ethnic conflicts in Kazakhstan
- Uyghuristan (disambiguation)
- Ethnic minorities in China
- Ethnic issues in China
- List of ethnic groups in China
References
- ISBN 978-0-7425-3989-1.
- ^ Reasonable Demands Needed From Dalai Lama
- ^ a b PTI (23 November 2017). "Tibet Wants to Stay With China, Seeks Development: Dalai Lama". TheQuint. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
- ^ a b "'Past is past': Dalai Lama says Tibet wants to stay with China, wants development". Hindustan Times. 23 November 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
- ^ Wang 2011, p. 30.
- ^ Dai 2009, p. 81.
- ^ Dai 2009, pp. 81–2.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 412.
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 251.
- ^ Dabringhaus 2014, p. 123.
- ^ Yeh 2009, p. 60.
- ^ Yeh 2013, p. 283.
- ^ Smith, Tibet, p. 162
- ^ Goldstein, History, p. 830
- ^ Smith, Tibet, p. 175
- ISBN 0-295-97644-6. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
In his 1990 autobiography, "Freedom in Exile," the Dalai Lama explained that his two brothers made contact with the CIA during a trip to India in 1956. The CIA agreed to help, "not because they cared about Tibetan independence, but as part of their worldwide efforts to destabilize all Communist governments," the Dalai Lama wrote.
- ^ The CIA's Secret War in Tibet, Kenneth Conboy, James Morrison, The University Press of Kansas, 2002.
- ISBN 1-55821-558-1
- ISBN 0-7126-6533-1. Cf. pg. 177
- ISBN 0-7006-1159-2
- ^ Dalai Lama Group Says It Got Money From C.I.A., The New York Times, 2 October 1998. Retrieved on 29 March 2008
- ^ Grunfeld, A. Tom, "Reassessing Tibet Policy" (Washington, DC: Foreign Policy In Focus, 12 October 2005)
- ^ The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
The budget figures for the CIA's Tibetan program are contained in a memo dated Jan. 9, 1964. It was evidently written to help justify continued funding for the clandestine intelligence operation. "Support of 2,100 Tibetan guerrillas based in Nepal: $500,000," the document says. "Subsidy to the Dalai Lama: $180,000." After listing several other costs, it concludes: "Total: $1,735,000." The files show that this budget request was approved soon afterward.
- ^ 西藏在辛亥革命后变成一个独立国家吗 (in Chinese). the Embassy of the PRC in the ROK. Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ "Human rights". Central Tibetan Administration. 2 February 1996. Archived from the original on 29 June 1998. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ French, Tibet, pp. 278–82
- ^ Smith, Tibetan, p. 600
- ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2
- S2CID 18471490. Retrieved 25 April 2008.
- ^ "Who Are the Drapchi 14?". Amnesty International USA Group 133. 4 April 2004. Archived from the original on 4 June 2004. Retrieved 25 April 2008.
- ^ "A breach of constitution under pretext of religion". Tibet.cn. 5 December 2008. Archived from the original on 6 September 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ a b "Govt. White Papers: Tibet's Modernization Achievements". China.org.cn. Retrieved 25 April 2008.
- ^ Wax, Emily (23 November 2008). "Exiled Tibetans weigh freedom struggle". Washington Post. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ "Ball State University Professor Leads Independence Movement". WIBC. 4 June 2008.
- ^ McDonald, Hamish (15 March 2005). "Tibet part of China: Dalai Lama". The Age. Fairfax. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
- ^ Xia, Xiaohua. "The Dalai Lama emphasizes that he does not support Tibetan independence and hopes to visit China as a Nobel Prize winner". RFA. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- ^ "About Free Tibet | Free Tibet". www.freetibet.org. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ "Allahabad School Holds Solidarity Rally for Tibet on Uprising Day". Central Tibetan Administration. 10 March 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ "Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ News-Tibet. Office of Tibet. 1986.
- ^ Perloff, James. "Tibet Marks 50th Anniversary of Lhasa Uprising". The New American. Retrieved 3 March 2011. (posted on The Buddhist Channel).
- ^ "Sharon Stone quake karma remarks spark anger in China". AFP. 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ "Dalai Lama still Stone's 'good friend'". independent.ie. 28 February 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
- ^ Carreon, Charles. "Steven Seagal comes out of the buddhist closet". Archived from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ Rinpoche, Penor. "Steven Seagal – "The Action Lama"". Archived from the original on 9 February 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ "Bjork Tibet Cry: Blacklisting May Follow". Sky News. 7 March 2008. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ Browne, David (31 October 1997). "INCITE AND SOUND". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ "Why Just a Free Tibet? How About a Free China?". Pop Matters. 21 July 2004. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ George, Matthew. "Tibetan Freedom Concert". Retrieved 8 February 2009.
- ^ See Phase One: Celebrity Take Down, Phase One: Celebrity Takedown Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Evans gears up for a free Tibet tour". Sydney Morning Herald. 13 June 2008.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-7195-5427-8.
- Bell, Charles (1924). Tibet: Past & Present. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Courtois, Stéphane; Mark Kramer; et al. (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, terror, repression. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
- French, Patrick (2002). Tibet, Tibet: a personal history. New York: Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4100-7.
- McKay, Alex (1997). Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904–1947. London: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-0627-3.
- Shakya, Tsering (1999). The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9.
- Smith, Warren W. (Jr.) (1996). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3155-3.
Further reading
- Dowman, Keith (1988). The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide. Routledge & Kegan Paul. London, ISBN 978-0-14-019118-9.
- Dunham, Mikel (2004). Buddha's Warriors: The Story of the CIA-Backed Freedom Fighters, the Chinese Communist Invasion, and the Ultimate Fall of Tibet. Penguin Group, ISBN 978-1-58542-348-4.
- Goldstein, Melvyn C.; with the help of Gelek Rimpche. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers (1993), ISBN 978-0-520-07590-0.
- Grunfield, Tom (1996). The Making of Modern Tibet. ISBN 978-1-56324-713-2.
- Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin (1968). Tibet: Its History, Religion and People. Reprint: Penguin Books (1987).
- Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide (2000). Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a Tibetan Warrior Nun. Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56836-294-6.
- Powers, John (2000). The Free Tibet Movement: A Selective Narrative. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 7
- Samuel, Geoffrey (1993). Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. Smithsonian ISBN 978-1-56098-231-9.
- Schell, Orville (2000). Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood. Henry Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-4381-5.
- Stein, R. A. (1962). Tibetan Civilization. First published in French; English translation by J. E. Stapelton Driver. Reprint: Stanford University Press (with minor revisions from 1977 Faber & Faber edition), 1995. ISBN 978-0-8047-0806-7.
- Tamm, Eric Enno. "The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China." Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2010, Chapter 17 & 18. ISBN 978-1-55365-269-4.[1]
- Thurman, Robert (2002). Robert Thurman on Tibet. DVD. ASIN B00005Y722.
- Wilby, Sorrel (1988). Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's 1900-Mile Trek Across the Rooftop of the World. Contemporary Books. ISBN 978-0-8092-4608-3.
- Wilson, Brandon (2005). Yak Butter Blues: A Tibetan Trek of Faith. Pilgrim's Tales. ISBN 978-0-9770536-7-4.
External links
- United for Tibet we stand Archived 9 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- International Tibet Independence Movement Archived 16 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- Independent Tibet Network
- International Campaign for Tibet
- Free Tibet Campaign
- Students for a Free Tibet
- Tibetan Youth Congress
- Central Tibetan Administration
- Tibet Society