Timeline of cosmological theories

This timeline of cosmological theories and discoveries is a chronological record of the development of humanity's understanding of the cosmos over the last two-plus millennia. Modern cosmological ideas follow the development of the scientific discipline of physical cosmology.

For millennia, what today is known to be the Solar System was regarded as the contents of the "whole universe", so advances in the knowledge of both mostly paralleled. Clear distinction was not made until circa mid-17th century. See Timeline of Solar System astronomy for further details on this side.

Antiquity

• c. 16th century BCE – Mesopotamian cosmology has a flat, circular Earth enclosed in a cosmic ocean.^[1]
• c. 15th–11th century BCE – The
  unmanifest for an equal length. The universe remains manifest for 4.32 billion years and unmanifest
  for an equal length. Innumerable universes exist simultaneously. These cycles have and will last forever, driven by desires.

• c. 15th–6th century BCE – During this period, Zoroastrian Cosmology Develops and defines Creation as a manifestation of a cosmic conflict between existence and non-existence, good and evil, and light and darkness.
• 6th century BCE – The Babylonian Map of the World shows the Earth surrounded by the cosmic ocean, with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. Contemporary Biblical cosmology reflects the same view of a flat, circular Earth swimming on water and overarched by the solid vault of the firmament to which are fastened the stars.
• 6th–4th century BCE – Greek philosophers, as early as Anaximander,^[2] introduce the idea of multiple or even infinite universes.^[3] Democritus further detailed that these worlds varied in distance, size; the presence, number and size of their suns and moons; and that they are subject to destructive collisions.^[4] Also during this time period, the Greeks established that the Earth is spherical rather than flat.^[5][6]
• 6th century BCE –
  Peloponnesus^[9]), and consequently, he realized how far from Earth it might be. In his system the celestial bodies turned at different distances. At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources)^[10] and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer,^[11] followed the same model.^[12]
• 5th century BCE –
  the centre of the universe.^[13]
• 5th century BCE – Pythagoreans as Philolaus believed the motion of planets is caused by an out-of-sight "fire" at the centre of the universe (not the Sun) that powers them, and Sun and Earth orbit that Central Fire at different distances. The Earth's inhabited side is always opposite to the Central Fire, rendering it invisible to people. They also claimed that the Moon and the planets orbit the Earth.^[14] This model depicts a moving Earth, simultaneously self-rotating and orbiting around an external point (but not around the Sun), thus not being geocentrical, contrary to common intuition. Due to philosophical concerns about the number 10 (a "perfect number" for the Pythagorians), they also added a tenth "hidden body" or Counter-Earth (Antichthon), always in the opposite side of the invisible Central Fire and therefore also invisible from Earth.^[15]
• 4th century BCE –
  'perfect' year.^[20] However, others like Philolaus and Hicetas had rejected geocentrism.^[21]
• 4th century BCE – Eudoxus of Cnidus devised a geometric-mathematical model for the movements of the planets, the first known effort in this sense, based on (conceptual) concentric spheres centered on Earth.^[22] To explain the complexity of the movements of the planets along with that of the Sun and the Moon, Eudoxus thought they move as if they were attached to a number of concentrical, invisible spheres, every of them rotating around its own and different axis and at different paces. His model had twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus emphasised that this is a purely mathematical construct of the model in the sense that the spheres of each celestial body do not exist, it just shows the possible positions of the bodies.^[23] His model was later refined and expanded by Callippus.

• 4th century BCE – Aristotle follows the Plato's Earth-centered universe in which the Earth is stationary and the cosmos (or universe) is finite in extent but infinite in time. He argued for a spherical Earth using lunar eclipses^[24] and other observations. Aristotle adopted and expanded even more the previous Eudoxus' and Callippus' model, but by supposing the spheres were material and crystalline.^[25] Aristotle also tried to determine whether the Earth moves and concluded that all the celestial bodies fall towards Earth by natural tendency and since Earth is the centre of that tendency, it is stationary.^[26] Plato seems to have obscurely argued that the universe did have a beginning, but Aristotle and others interpreted his words differently.^[27]
• 4th century BCE –
  Five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater – namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by aether – make up the whole Universe.^[28]
• 4th century BCE –
  Earth rotates on its axis, from west to east, once every 24 hours, contradicting Aristotle's teachings. Simplicius says that Heraclides proposed that the irregular movements of the planets can be explained if the Earth moves while the Sun stays still,^[29] but these statements are disputed.^[30]
• 3rd century BCE – Aristarchus of Samos proposes a Sun-centered universe and Earth's rotation in its own axis. He also provides evidences for his theory from his own observations.^[31]
• 3rd century BCE –
  light years
  , if Aristarchus' theories were correct.
• 2nd century BCE – Seleucus of Seleucia elaborates on Aristarchus' heliocentric universe, using the phenomenon of tides to explain heliocentrism. Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric system through reasoning. Seleucus' arguments for a heliocentric cosmology were probably related to the phenomenon of tides. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun. Alternatively, he may have proved heliocentricity by determining the constants of a geometric model for it.^[32]
• 2nd century BCE – Apollonius of Perga shows the equivalence of two descriptions of the apparent retrograde planet motions (assuming the geocentric model), one using eccentrics and another deferent and epicycles.^[33] The latter will be a key feature for future models. The epicycle is described as a small orbit within a greater one, called the deferent: as a planet orbits the Earth, it also orbits the original orbit, so its trajectory resembles a curve known as an epitrochoid. This could explain how the planet seems to move as viewed from Earth.
• 2nd century BCE – Eratosthenes determines that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km.^[34]
• 2nd century BCE –
  star catalog of about 850 entries.^[36]
• c. 2nd century BCE–3rd century CE – In
  kalpa (day of Brahma) period lasting for 4.32 billion years, and is followed by a pralaya (night) period of partial dissolution equal in duration. In some Puranas (e.g. Bhagavata Purana), a larger cycle of time is described where matter (mahat-tattva or universal womb) is created from primal matter (prakriti) and root matter (pradhana) every 622.08 trillion years, from which Brahma is born.^[37] The elements of the universe are created, used by Brahma, and fully dissolved within a maha-kalpa (life of Brahma; 100 of his 360-day years) period lasting for 311.04 trillion years containing 36,000 kalpas (days) and pralayas (nights), and is followed by a maha-pralaya period of full dissolution equal in duration.^{[38][39][40][41]} The texts also speak of innumerable worlds or universes.^[42]
• 2nd century CE –
  The Almagest, which also cataloged 1,022 stars and other astronomical objects (largely based upon Hipparchus'), remained the most authoritative text on astronomy and largest astronomical catalogue until the 17th century.^[44][45]

• 2nd century CE-5th century CE – Jain cosmology considers the loka, or universe, as an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom.
• 5th century (or earlier) – Buddhist texts speak of "hundreds of thousands of billions, countlessly, innumerably, boundlessly, incomparably, incalculably, unspeakably, inconceivably, immeasurably, inexplicably many worlds" to the east, and "infinite worlds in the ten directions".^[46][47]
• 5th century – Several Indian astronomers propose a rudimentary Sun-centered universe, including Aryabhata. He also writes a treatise on motion of planets, Sun and Moon and stars. Aryabhatta puts forward the theory of rotation of the Earth in its own axis and explained day and night was caused by the diurnal rotation of the Earth. He also provided empirical evidence for his notion from his astronomical experiments and observation.^[48]
• 5th century – The Jewish talmud gives an argument for finite universe theory along with explanation.

• 5th century – Martianus Capella describes a modified geocentric model, in which the Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the Moon, the Sun, three planets and the stars, while Mercury and Venus circle the Sun, all surrounded by the sphere of fixed stars.^[49]
• 6th century – John Philoponus proposes a universe that is finite in time and argues against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite universe
• 7th century – The Quran says in Chapter 21: Verse 30 – "Have those who disbelieved not considered that the Heavens and the Earth were a joined entity, and We separated them".
• 9th–12th centuries – Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph) and Al-Ghazali (Algazel) support a universe that has a finite past and develop two logical arguments for the notion.
• 12th century –
  Islamic cosmology, rejects Aristotle's idea of an Earth-centered universe, and, in the context of his commentary on the Quranic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," and proposes that the universe has more than "a thousand worlds beyond this world."^[50]
• 12th century – Robert Grosseteste described the birth of the Universe in an explosion and the crystallisation of matter. He also put forward several new ideas such as rotation of the Earth around its axis and the cause of day and night. His treatise De Luce is the first attempt to describe the heavens and Earth using a single set of physical laws.^[51]
• 14th century –
  Levi ben Gershon (Gersonides) estimates the distance to the outermost orb of the fixed stars to be no less than 159,651,513,380,944 Earth radii, or about 100,000 light-years in modern units.^[52]
• 14th century – Several European mathematicians and astronomers develop the theory of Earth's rotation including Nicole Oresme. Oresme also give logical reasoning, empirical evidence and mathematical proofs for his notion.^[53][54]
• 15th century – Nicholas of Cusa proposes that the Earth rotates on its axis in his book, On Learned Ignorance (1440).^[55] Like Oresme, he also wrote about the possibility of the plurality of worlds.^[56]

Renaissance

• 1501 – Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji proposes a universe in which the planets orbit the Sun, but the Sun orbits the Earth.^[57]

• 1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus publishes his heliocentric universe in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.^[58]
• 1576 – Thomas Digges modifies the Copernican system by removing its outer edge and replacing the edge with a star-filled unbounded space.^[59]
• 1584 – Giordano Bruno proposes a non-hierarchical cosmology, wherein the Copernican Solar System is not the center of the universe, but rather, a relatively insignificant star system, amongst an infinite multitude of others.^[60]
• 1588 – Tycho Brahe publishes his own Tychonic system, a blend between Ptolemy's classical geocentric model and Copernicus' heliocentric model, in which the Sun and the Moon revolve around the Earth, in the center of universe, and all other planets revolve around the Sun.^[61] It is a geo-heliocentric model similar to that described by Somayaji.
• 1600 –
  William Gilbert rejects the idea of a limiting sphere of the fixed stars for which no proof has been offered.^[62]
• 1609 – Galileo Galilei examines the skies and constellations through a telescope and concluded that the "fixed stars" which had been studied and mapped were only a tiny portion of the massive universe that lay beyond the reach of the naked eye.^[63] When in 1610 he aimed his telescope to the faint strip of the Milky Way, he found it resolves into countless white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves.^[64]
• 1610 –
  Kepler's laws universal.^[65]

• 1659 – Christiaan Huygens makes precise measurements of the angular distance between the Sun and Venus, which were based on the first absolute measurements of the Astronomical unit.^[66]
• 1672 – Jean Richer and Giovanni Domenico Cassini measure the Earth-Sun distance, the astronomical unit, to be about 138,370,000 km.^[67] Later it will be refined by others up to the current value of 149,597,870 km.
• 1675 – Ole Rømer uses the orbital mechanics of Jupiter's moons to estimate that the speed of light is about 227,000 km/s.^[68]
• 1687 –
  laws describe large-scale motion throughout the universe. The universal force of gravity suggested that stars could not simply be fixed or at rest, as their gravitational pulls cause "mutual attraction" and therefore cause them to move in relation to each other.^[69]
• 1704 – John Locke enters the term "Solar System" in the English language, when he used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets as a whole.^[70] By then it had been stablished beyond doubt that planets are other worlds, and stars are other distant suns, so the whole Solar System is actually only a small part of an immensely large universe, and definitively something distinct.
• 1718 –
  Edmund Halley discovers proper motion of stars, dispelling the concept of the "fixed stars".^[71]
• 1720 – Edmund Halley puts forth an early form of
  Olbers' paradox
  .
• 1729 –
  aberration of light, which proved the Earth's motion around the Sun,^[72] and also provides a more accurate method to compute the speed of light
  closer to its actual value of about 300,000 km/s.
• 1744 –
  Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux
  puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox.
• 1755 –
  island universes
  .

• 1781 –
  star clusters, the most prominent deep-sky objects that can easily be observed from Earth's Northern Hemisphere, in order not to be confused with ordinary Solar System's comets.^[73]
• 1785 –
  Milky Way Galaxy.^[74]
• 1791 – Erasmus Darwin pens the first description of a cyclical expanding and contracting universe in his poem The Economy of Vegetation.
• 1796 –
  Pierre Laplace re-states the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the Solar System from a spinning nebula of gas and dust.^[75]
• 1826 –
  Olbers' paradox
  .
• 1832–1838 – Following over 100 years of unsuccessful attempts, Thomas Henderson,^[76] Friedrich Bessel,^[77] and Otto Struve measure the parallax of a few nearby stars; these are the first measurements of any distances outside the Solar System.

• 1842 –
  electromagnetic waves in 1848.^[79]
• 1848 – Edgar Allan Poe offers first correct solution to Olbers' paradox in Eureka: A Prose Poem, an essay that also suggests the expansion and collapse of the universe.
• 1860s –
  Orion nebula is mostly made of gas, while the Andromeda nebula (later called Andromeda Galaxy
  ) is probably dominated by stars.
• 1862 – By analysing the
  spectroscopic signature of the Sun and comparing it to those of other stars, Father Angelo Secchi determines that the Sun in itself is also a star.^[80]
• 1887 – The
  relative motion of Earth through the (assumed) stationary luminiferous aether, got no results. This put an end to the centuries-old idea of the aether, dating back to Aristotle, and with it all the contemporary aether theories.^[81]
• 1897 –
  atomic model of matter.^[82]
• 1897 –
  William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, based on the thermal radiation rate and the gravitational contraction forces, argues the age of the Sun to be no more than 20 million years – unless some energy source beyond what was then known was found.^[83]

• 1904 – Ernest Rutherford argues, in a lecture attended by Kelvin, that radioactive decay releases heat, providing the unknown energy source Kelvin had suggested, and ultimately leading to radiometric dating of rocks which reveals ages of billions of years for the Solar System bodies, hence the Sun and all the stars.^[84]
• 1905 –
  interchangeable
  .
• 1912 –
  Henrietta Leavitt discovers the period-luminosity law for Cepheid variable
  stars, which becomes a crucial step in measuring distances to other galaxies.
• 1913 –
  spectral lines, and definitively established the quantum mechanics behaviour of the matter.^[85]
• 1915 – Robert Innes discovers Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun.^[86]
• 1915 – Albert Einstein publishes the
  General Theory of Relativity, showing that an energy density warps spacetime
  .
• 1917 –
  expanding cosmology with a cosmological constant, termed a de Sitter universe
  .
• 1918 –
  globular clusters showed that the heliocentrism model of cosmology was wrong, and galactocentrism replaced heliocentrism as the dominant model of cosmology.^[74]
• 1919 –
  General Theory of Relativity.^[87]
• 1920 – The
  Smithsonian
  .
• 1921 – The
  Shapley-Curtis Debate. Galaxies are finally recognized as objects beyond the Milky Way, and the Milky Way as a galaxy proper.^[88]
• 1922 –
  Vesto Slipher summarizes his findings on the spiral nebulae's systematic redshifts
  .
• 1922 –
  Einstein field equations
  which suggests a general expansion of space.
• 1923 – Edwin Hubble measures distances to a few nearby spiral nebulae (galaxies), the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), Triangulum Galaxy (M33), and NGC 6822. The distances place them far outside the Milky Way, and implies that fainter galaxies are much more distant, and the universe is composed of many thousands of galaxies.
• 1924 – Louis de Broglie asserts that moderately accelerated electrons must show an associated wave.^[89] This was later confirmed by the Davisson–Germer experiment in 1927.^[90]
• 1927 – Georges Lemaître discusses the creation event of an expanding universe governed by the Einstein field equations. From its solutions to the Einstein equations, he predicts the distance-redshift relation.
• 1928 –
  antielectrons, and hence antimatter.^[91] This was confirmed in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson.^[92]
• 1928 – Howard P. Robertson briefly mentions that Vesto Slipher's redshift measurements combined with brightness measurements of the same galaxies indicate a redshift-distance relation.

• 1929 – Edwin Hubble demonstrates the linear redshift-distance relationship and thus shows the expansion of the universe.
• 1932 –
  radio signals coming from outer space as extrasolar, coming mainly from Sagittarius.^[94] They are the first evidence of the center of the Milky Way, and the firsts experiences that founded the discipline of radio astronomy
  .
• 1933 – Edward Milne names and formalizes the cosmological principle.
• 1933 –
  Coma cluster
  of galaxies contains large amounts of dark matter. This result agrees with modern measurements, but is generally ignored until the 1970s.
• 1934 – Georges Lemaître interprets the cosmological constant as due to a vacuum energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state.
• 1938 –
  two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the stars.^[95][96]
• 1938 – Paul Dirac suggests the large numbers hypothesis, that the gravitational constant may be small because it is decreasing slowly with time.
• 1948 –
  "in absentia"), and George Gamow examine element synthesis in a rapidly expanding and cooling universe, and suggest that the elements were produced by rapid neutron
  capture.
• 1948 –
  steady state
  cosmologies based on the perfect cosmological principle.
• 1948 –
  cosmic microwave background radiation
  by considering the behavior of primordial radiation in an expanding universe.
• 1950 – Fred Hoyle coins the term "Big Bang", saying that it was not derisive; it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between that and the Steady-State model.

1951–2000

• 1961 –
  Robert Dicke argues that carbon-based life can only arise when the gravitational force is small, because this is when burning stars exist; first use of the weak anthropic principle
  .
• 1963 – Maarten Schmidt discovers the first quasar; these soon provide a probe of the universe back to substantial redshifts.
• 1965 –
  ambiplasma to explain baryon asymmetry
  and supports the idea of an infinite universe.
• 1965 –
  Dennis Sciama analyze quasar
  source count data and discover that the quasar density increases with redshift.
• 1965 –
  Robert Dicke, James Peebles, Peter Roll and David Todd Wilkinson
  interpret it as a relic from the Big Bang.

• 1966 –
  George Ellis show that any plausible general relativistic cosmology is singular
  .
• 1966 – James Peebles shows that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct helium abundance.
• 1967 – Andrei Sakharov presents the requirements for baryogenesis, a baryon-antibaryon asymmetry in the universe.
• 1967 –
  Wal Sargent, and Maarten Schmidt measure the fine-structure splitting of spectral lines in 3C191 and thereby show that the fine-structure constant
  does not vary significantly with time.
• 1967 – Robert Wagner, William Fowler, and Fred Hoyle show that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct deuterium and lithium abundances.
• 1968 – Brandon Carter speculates that perhaps the fundamental constants of nature must lie within a restricted range to allow the emergence of life; first use of the strong anthropic principle.
• 1969 –
  Charles Misner formally presents the Big Bang horizon problem
  .
• 1969 – Robert Dicke formally presents the Big Bang flatness problem.
• 1970 – Vera Rubin and Kent Ford measure spiral galaxy rotation curves at large radii, showing evidence for substantial amounts of dark matter.
• 1973 – Edward Tryon proposes that the universe may be a large scale quantum mechanical vacuum fluctuation where positive mass-energy is balanced by negative gravitational potential energy.
• 1976 – Alexander Shlyakhter uses samarium ratios from the Oklo prehistoric natural nuclear fission reactor in Gabon to show that some laws of physics have remained unchanged for over two billion years.
• 1977 – Gary Steigman, David Schramm, and James Gunn examine the relation between the primordial helium abundance and number of neutrinos and claim that at most five lepton families can exist.
• 1980 –
  inflationary
  Big Bang universe as a possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems.
• 1981 –
  inflationary
  universe.
• 1982 – The first CfA galaxy redshift survey is completed.
• 1982 – Several groups including James Peebles, J. Richard Bond and George Blumenthal propose that the universe is dominated by cold dark matter.
• 1983–1987  – The first large computer simulations of cosmic structure formation are run by Davis, Efstathiou, Frenk and White. The results show that cold dark matter produces a reasonable match to observations, but hot dark matter does not.

• 1988 – The CfA2 Great Wall is discovered in the CfA2 redshift survey.
• 1988 – Measurements of galaxy large-scale flows provide evidence for the Great Attractor.
• 1990 – The Hubble Space Telescope is launched.^[97] It is aimed primarily at deep-space objects.
• 1990 – Preliminary results from
  blackbody
  spectrum to an astonishing one part in 10⁵ precision, thus eliminating the possibility of an integrated starlight model proposed for the background by steady state enthusiasts.
• 1992 – Further COBE measurements discover the very small anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background, providing a "baby picture" of the seeds of large-scale structure when the universe was around 1/1100th of its present size and 380,000 years old.
• 1992 – First planetary system beyond the Solar System detected, around the pulsar PSR B1257+12.^[98]
• 1995 – The first planet around a Sun-like star is discovered, in orbit around the star 51 Pegasi.^[99]
• 1996 – The first Hubble Deep Field is released, providing a clear view of very distant galaxies when the universe was around one-third of its present age.
• 1998 – Controversial evidence for the fine-structure constant varying over the lifetime of the universe is first published.
• 1998 – The Supernova Cosmology Project and High-Z Supernova Search Team discover cosmic acceleration based on distances to Type Ia supernovae, providing the first direct evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant.
• 1999 – Measurements of the
  cosmic microwave background radiation with finer resolution than COBE, (most notably by the BOOMERanG experiment see Mauskopf et al., 1999, Melchiorri et al., 1999, de Bernardis et al. 2000) provide evidence for oscillations (the first acoustic peak) in the anisotropy
  angular spectrum, as expected in the standard model of cosmological structure formation. The angular position of this peak indicates that the geometry of the universe is close to flat.

• 2001 – The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF) by an Australian/British team gave strong evidence that the matter density is near 25% of critical density. Together with the CMB results for a flat universe, this provides independent evidence for a cosmological constant or similar dark energy.
• 2002 – The Cosmic Background Imager (CBI) in Chile obtained images of the cosmic microwave background radiation with the highest angular resolution of 4 arc minutes. It also obtained the anisotropy spectrum at high-resolution not covered before up to l ~ 3000. It found a slight excess in power at high-resolution (l > 2500) not yet completely explained, the so-called "CBI-excess".
• 2003 – NASA's
  inflation
  .

• 2003 – The Sloan Great Wall is discovered.
• 2004 – The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) first obtained the E-mode polarization spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
• 2004 –
  heliosheath.^[100]
• 2005 – The
  baryon acoustic oscillation feature in the galaxy distribution, a key prediction of cold dark matter
  models.
• 2006 – Three-year
  polarization
  data.
• 2009–2013 –
  cosmic microwave background radiation
  , with increased sensitivity and small angular resolution.
• 2006–2011 – Improved measurements from
  WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-CDM model
  .
• 2014 – Astrophysicists of the
  cosmic inflation findings was reported.^{[105][107][108]}
• 2016 – LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration announce that gravitational waves were directly detected by two LIGO detectors. The waveform matched the prediction of General relativity for a gravitational wave emanating from the inward spiral and merger of a pair of black holes of around 36 and 29 solar masses and the subsequent "ringdown" of the single resulting black hole.^{[109][110][111]} The second detection verified that GW150914 is not a fluke, thus opens entire new branch in astrophysics, gravitational-wave astronomy.^[112][113]
• 2019 – The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration publishes the image of the black hole at the center of the M87 Galaxy.^[114] This is the first time astronomers have ever captured an image of a black hole, which once again proves the existence of black holes and thus helps verify Einstein's general theory of relativity.^[115] This was done by utilising very-long-baseline interferometry.^[116]
• 2020 – Physicist
  Hubble constant by proposing the notion of a surrounding vast "bubble", 250 million light years in diameter, that is half the density of the rest of the universe.^[117][118]
• 2020 – Scientists publish a study which suggests that the Universe is no longer
  cosmological implications, it shows that studies which assume perfect isotropy in the properties of galaxy clusters and their scaling relations can produce strongly biased results.^{[119][120][121][122][123]}
• 2020 – Scientists report verifying measurements 2011–2014 via ULAS J1120+0641 of what seem to be a spatial variation in four measurements of the fine-structure constant, a basic physical constant used to measure electromagnetism between charged particles, which indicates that there might be directionality with varying natural constants in the Universe which would have implications for theories on the emergence of habitability of the Universe and be at odds with the widely accepted theory of constant natural laws and the standard model of cosmology which is based on an isotropic Universe.^{[124][125][126][127]}
• 2021 – James Webb Space Telescope is launched.^[128]
• 2023 – Astrophysicists questioned the overall current view of the
  Standard Model of Cosmology, based on the latest James Webb Space Telescope studies.^[129]